CHAPTER 10

VARIATION

Variation
Outline The nature of species Prezygotic isolating mechanisms Postzygotic isolating mechanisms The geography of speciation Darwins finches Problems with the biological species concept

The nature of species

knowledge in species is the fundamentals importance to evolutionary biology any concept of species must account for 2 phenomena: i. distinctiveness of species that occur together at a single locality ii. connections among population of the same species that are geography separated

The nature of species

The distinctiveness of sympatric species species that occur together (sympatric) are distinctive entities that are phenotypically different, utilize different parts of the habitat and behave separately sympatric species that appear to be nearly identical are called sibling species.

The nature of species

Geographic variation within species populations that occur together in different areas may be more or less distinct from one another classified taxonomically as subspecies or varieties if the populations approach one another, individuals often exhibit combinations of features characteristics of both populations

The nature of species

The biological species concept if sympatric species exchanged genes, such species are rapidly lose their distinctions - gene pools of different species become homogenized if the geographically distant populations share genes, it will keep the populations integrated as members of the same species

The nature of species

The biological species concept Ernst Mayr coined the biological species concept which define species as:
.. groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations which are reproductively isolated from other such groups.

species - individuals that are capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring member of different species that cannot produce fertile offspring are said to be reproductively isolated

The nature of species

The biological species concept hybridization - member of different species interbreed, results in unhealthy and sterile offspring or no offspring at all. - genes from one species unable to enter gene pool of another species

The nature of species

Problems with applying the biological species concept effective way of understanding the existing of species but difficult to apply to populations that do not occur naturally together (allopatric) many organisms undergo asexual reproduction, reproductive isolation is not a matter.

Factors involved in the formation of new species

reproductive isolating mechanisms fall in 2 categories: i. prezygotic isolating - prevent the formation of zygotes ii. postzygotic isolating - prevent the proper functioning of zygotes

Prezygotic isolating mechanisms

Ecological isolation even two species occur together in the same area, they may utilized different portions of environment and not hybridize because they do not encounter each other because of differences in behavioral and ecological, two species rarely came into direct contact eg. : lions stay in open grassland, tigers in forest valley oak can achieve 35 m tall, scrub oak only 1-3 m tall

Prezygotic isolating mechanisms

Behavioral isolation related species of organisms often differ in their mating rituals, make them distinct in nature even share the same places eg. : mallard and pintail duck share the freshwater in North America, but nest side-by-side

Prezygotic isolating mechanisms

Temporal isolation different breeding seasons become the factor that prevent hybridization hybrids between two species can easily made experimentally, but in nature rarely occurs eg. : L. graminifolia flowers in early spring, L. canadensis flowers in summer

Prezygotic isolating mechanisms

Mechanical isolation structural differences prevent mating between related organisms eg. : flowers of related species often differ in their structures, prevent the proper pollination Prevention of gamete fusion fertilization never takes place because of the sperm of 1 species may function poorly within the reproductive tract of another

Postzygotic isolating mechanisms

prezygotic prevent the formation of hybrid zygotes if mating do occur and zygotes are produced, many factors still prevent it to become fertile individuals genetic complement of two species may be so different make they cannot function together normally even if they can survive the embryo stage, if they are weaker then their parents, they will be eliminate in nature if they strong, they may still be sterile

Selection
if populations are partly differentiated come into contact, they may still be able to interbreed freely but, if they are reproductively isolated, no genetic change will occur and the two populations will be different species evolution led to change in reproductive isolation hybridization will occur occasionally if they partly sterile or cannot adapt to their parents habitats, disadvantage to these hybrid

Selection
natural selection favor allele in parent that prevent hybridization until the two populations completely reproductive isolated natural selection is a process selecting a good genes and eliminated the bad genes (make them easier to adapt to environment) reinforcement process - initially incomplete isolating mechanisms, are reinforced by natural selection until completely effective selection also act on mating behavior

The geography of speciation

speciation is two part process 1. identical populations must diverge 2. reproduction isolation must evolve to maintain these differences the major problems is homogenizing effect of gene flow between population

The geography of speciation

Speciation in allopatry geographically separated populations appear leading to speciation eg. : Papuan kingfisher, varies little in main island of New Guinea, but strikingly different from each other for the same species at the nearby islands

The geography of speciation

Speciation in sympatry selection lead to formation of two difference species before become two difference species, they must evolve reproductive isolating mechanisms most of the time, the two phenotypes would be retained as polymorphisms (the existence of two distinct hereditary types based on different alleles) in a single population sympatric speciation a rare event

The geography of speciation

Genetic changes underlying speciation studies show that there are very few genes involved in separating two species numbers of genes involved are different for each species

The geography of speciation

Role of polyploidy in species formation polyploidy - doubles the chromosome number of the original sterile individual hybrid are sterile because of their chromosomes from two species of parents do not pair with one another results of doubling, they will have duplicate of each chromosome, this chromosome will pair and fertility of the polyploid hybrid may be restored

Darwins finches
1835, Charles Darwin visited Galapagos Islands to study the evolution in plant and animals evolution led to the existence of groups of closely related species from a common ancestor ancestor of Darwins finches was the first reached the island, many spaces was unoccupied other species of birds moved to these vacant ecological niches and adopted a new lifestyle

Darwins finches
adaptation to their environment and aided by the geographic isolation make the ancestral finches rapidly split into a series of diverse populations some evolved into different species, now occupy habitats on the Galapagos Islands 13 species of Darwins finches comprise of four groups: i. ground finches - six species, feed on seeds, bills is related to the size of the seeds they eat

Darwins finches
ii. tree finches - five species of insect-eating, four of them have bills suitable for feeding insects, the woodpecker finch has a chisel-like beak iii. warbler finch - same with warblers on the mainland, has a slender, warbler-like beak iv. vegetarian finch - bud-eating bird, very heavy bill used to wrench buds from branches

Darwins finches

Problems with the biological species concept

The extent of hybridization biological species are reproductively isolated, so hybridization should be rare if hybridization is common, two quick outcomes: i. reinforcement would occur ii. two populations would merge into a single homogeneous gene pool in recent years, hybridization is no longer a rarely cases, either in plants or animals

Problems with the biological species concept

Alternatives to the biological species concept distinctions among species are maintained by natural selection each species has adapted to its own environment hybridization has little effects because alleles introduced into the gene pool would be eliminated by natural selection variety of ideas have been put forward to establish criteria for defining species