Basic Structural Design for

Formula SAE
Dave DeJohn
david.dejohn@gmail.com
Purpose
Cover design and analysis fundamentals
with FEA or hand calculations
Take a crash course, idealistic approach
Give a systematic method
Stay general we can discuss specific parts
of the car in another session
Discuss material selection based on
physical and mechanical properties (no
chemistry)
Design metrics
If your goal is to finish well, the measure is competition points
Break it down:










Design decisions often improve one metric at the expense of another. For
a cohesive design the leads must have the same priorities.
Its easy to lose focus!
Engineers should think quantitatively how much faster? How much more
expensive? How many points does that work out to?
Structural design influences all of these categories.
Criteria Measured by:
Performance Acceleration time
Skidpad time
Autocross time
Endurance time
Fuel mileage
Cost Design report formulas
Actual budget
Safety Rules requirements
Durability Time between service
Time to complete service
Structural design and analysis
happens on a sliding scale
Analysis
More advanced
methods
Bounding material
properties
More accurate
answer, but more
parameters are
fixed
Simpler
Prediction
Most advanced
methods
Account for
material scatter
Most parameters
are fixed
Probabilistic
likelihood of failure

More Complex
Design
Simplified methods
Bounding material
properties
Parametric
Focus on comparing
options, rather than the
correct answer
For Formula SAE, stay to the left side of the scale
Refresher - basic material behavior
The point of most structural analysis is to use properties from a tension
specimen to design everything else!
Stress:
Force
Area
Strain: Change in Length
Length
Elastic Modulus
Yield Strength
Ultimate Strength
Elongation
at fracture
Trends in low strength vs high
strength material (same family)
Stress:
Force
Area
Strain: Change in Length
Length
Brittle Fracture
Stress:
Force
Area
Strain: Change in Length
Length
The materials you use will usually only experience nonductile fracture
failure without permanent deformation if they are cracked or have
manufacturing defects
FEA Considerations
Stress:
Force
Area
Strain: Change in Length
Length
Default is linear elastic behavior;
For stress > yield strength,
Overpredicts stress (& strength)
Underpredicts strain (& deflection)
FEA Considerations
Stress:
Force
Area
Strain: Change in Length
Length
Default is linear elastic behavior;
For stress > yield strength,
Overpredicts stress (& strength)
Underpredicts strain (& deflection)
Elastic-Perfectly Plastic is a very practical simplification
FEA Considerations
Stress:
Force
Area
Strain: Change in Length
Length
Default is linear elastic behavior;
For stress > yield strength,
Overpredicts stress (& strength)
Underpredicts strain (& deflection)
Elastic-Perfectly Plastic is a very practical
simplification
Elastic-Plastic analysis is most advanced; is
in terms of true stress-strain, rather than
engineering stress-strain
ultimate strength disappears
Nominal stress and peak stress
F
F
V
M
M
V
Nominal Area
or Net Section
(A, I, J, t)
Nominal Stress Peak Stress
Tension S
T
= P/A
T
= k
T
S
T
(or FEA)
Bending S
B
= Mc/I
B
= k
B
S
B
(or FEA)

Transverse Shear T
v
= VQ/(It)
V
(use FEA)
Torsional Shear T
t
= Tc/J
t
(use FEA)
T
T
FEA gives peak stress, usually as the
combined effect of all these load types.

BUT, peak stress is often not a good
indicator of when or how the part will fail

When is nominal stress more important, &
how do you extract it from FEA?

Gross Area
Stress
Concentration
We will focus on these two
challenges in structural design:
1. Peak stress is often not a good predictor
of when or how the part will fail
2. Sometimes stronger materials make
weaker parts

To overcome these challenges you need to
understand the basic failure modes
Design checks and failure modes
1. Load Carrying Capacity
2. Elastic Stiffness
3. Buckling Capacity
4. Fatigue Life
5. Brittle Fracture
Due to manufacturing defects
Due to fatigue cracks

Load Carrying Capacity
What it is:
When the combined nominal stress due to the load conditions reaches the yield strength, the part will
begin to permanently deform
If the loads continue to increase, the part will collapse or fracture
Note: the ultimate strength (Su or tensile strength) is only a good predictor of fracture load for
pure tension; but we still use it as a rule of thumb for material choice

What is the critical material property?
Yield strength, Sy, used with appropriate safety factors
Or, design strength: lesser of 2/3(Sy) or 1/3(Su)
Thermal stress doesnt affect load carrying capacity, but higher temperature will decrease strength

Hand calculation methods:
Effective stress < 2/3(Sy) or 1/3(Su)
For most of your cases, this simplification will work:



Partial allowables (allows different safety factors for the loading conditions)



FEA methods:
Stress linearization or planarization (old school)
Limit load analysis use elastic-perfectly plastic properties, ramp load. plot deflection vs load
2 2
3
2
1
|
.
|

\
|
+ + |
.
|

\
|
+ =
J
Tc
A
V
I
Mc
A
P
S
EFFECTIVE
1
40 . 0 (solid) 75 . 0 or (tube) 66 . 0 ) 50 . 0 , 60 . 0 min(
<
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
+
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
.
|

\
|
Sy
J
Tc
A
V
Sy Sy
I
Mc
Sy Sy
A
P
WEB
Load Carrying Capacity
d d
t
h h
t
Tension /
Compression
Bending
(Elastic Limit)
Transverse
Shear
Torsion
y ty
d F o
t
2
4
= ( ) ( )
y ty
y ty
t d F
t d d F
o t
o
t
~
=
*
2 2
2
4
y ty
h F o
2
= ( )
y ty
ty
t h F
t h h F
o 4
2
*
2 2
~
=
y y
d M o
t
3
32
=
( )
y y
y y
t d M
d
t d
d M
o
t
o
t
2 *
4
3
4
2
32
~
|
|
.
|

\
|

= y y
h M o
3
6
1
=
( )
y y
y y
t h M
h
t h
h M
o
o
2 *
4
3
3
4
2
6
1
~
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
( )
y sy
d F o
t
57 . 0
4
2
~ ( )
y sy
t d F o 57 . 0
3
4
~ ( )
y sy
h F o 57 . 0
2
~ ( )( )
y sy
t ht F o 57 . 0 4 2
2
~
( )
y y
d T o
t
57 . 0
16
3
~
( )
( )
( )
y y
y y
t d T
d
t d
d T
o
t
o
t
57 . 0
2
57 . 0
2
16
2
4
3
~
|
|
.
|

\
|

~ ( )
y y
h T o 57 . 0 208 . 0
3
~
y p
M M 70 . 1 =
y p
M M 27 . 1 ~
y p
M M 50 . 1 ~
y p
M M 12 . 1 ~
( ) ( )
y y
t h t T o 57 . 0 2
2
~
(Plastic
Reserve)
Elastic Stiffness
What it is:
Even if nominal stress is kept in the elastic range, the part is not stiff enough to:
Function properly
Keep loading quasi-static, or prevent load amplification due to dynamic conditions

What is the critical material property?
Elastic modulus, E

Hand calculation methods:










Keep period of natural frequency, T = 2/sqrt(k/m) where m = supported weight/(gravity
constant), less than load application time
Try to keep similar stiffness for connected parts

FEA methods:
For linear elastic analysis, k = Load / Deflection
Natural frequency (eigenvalue) extraction

Deflection Stiffness
Tension = PL/(AE) k = AE/L
Bending =
ML
2
/(CEI)
k = CEI/L
x
x = 2 for moment, 3 for point load,
4 for distributed load)
Torsion = TL/(GJ) k = GJ/L (radians)
G = E/2.6
Elastic Stiffness
Load Ramp Time
Period of Natural Frequency
M
a
x

D
y
n
a
m
i
c

L
o
a
d

S
t
a
t
i
c

L
o
a
d

1
2
1 2 3 4
~120%
~115%
~110%
m
k
Load amplification due to dynamic conditions
Buckling Capacity
What it is:
Characteristics of load carrying capacity and elastic stiffness as the nominal compressive
stress increases, the deflection response suddenly becomes nonlinear but determined by
elastic modulus, not strength
Structural equivalent of standing on one foot

What is the critical material property?
Elastic modulus, E

Hand calculation methods:
Euler column formulas
AISC/Column safety modifications; L is effective length, r is radius of gyration, safety factor of
roughly 2:





FEA methods:
Bifurcation analysis elastic only
Elastic-plastic analysis accounting for nonlinear geometry (large strain, large displacement)
Be careful FEA might not pick-up real life concerns like eccentricity, friction, etc.

Sy
E
r
L
if
r
L
E
A
P
Sy
E
r
L
if
r
L
E
Sy Sy
A
P
C
C
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
92 . 1
2
68 . 7 92 . 1
t t
t
t
>
|
.
|

\
|
<
< |
.
|

\
|
<
Fatigue Life
What it is:
Repeated peak stress (or peak strain) reversals cause small cracks to initiate and grow, especially
in areas of stress concentrations
Eventually a crack grows large enough that a part loses its load carrying capacity (collapses) or
experiences brittle fracture or ductile tearing

What is the critical material property?
For rotating parts: the endurance limit, S
E
(probably with a safety factor)
For nonrotating parts: fatigue curves - stress vs cycles or strain vs cycles
Probabilistic; recognize that data scatter, surface finish, part size, environment, and other
factors can reduce predicted life by a factor of 20!

Hand calculation methods:
Compare k
t
and

S to stress-life curves
Compare k
t
S/E to strain life curve, if k
t
S < Sy (peak stress less than yield)
Compare (k
t
S)
2
/(SyE) to strain life curve, if k
t
S > Sy (peak stress greater than yield)

FEA methods:
Linear elastic analysis:
Compare to unnotched and notched stress-life curves
Compare /E to strain life curve, if < Sy (peak stress less than yield)
Compare ()
2
/(SyE) to strain life curve, if > Sy (peak stress greater than yield)
Elastic-plastic analysis: compare to strain-life curve (tricky)





Fatigue Life
Even though fatigue cracking is driven by peak stress, the difference between the peak stress and the
nominal stress is still a factor due to notch sensitivity





F
F
F
F
2F
2F
k
t
= 2
Shorter average life
4130 Steel Sheet
F/A = 60 ksi

unnotched

notched, kt = 2.0
Multiply Maximum Stress by 2
before comparing to FEA!
Bar 1
Bar 3
Bar 2
Fatigue Life
Cycles to Failure (log scale)
A
l
t
e
r
n
a
t
i
n
g

P
e
a
k

S
t
r
a
i
n

(
l
o
g

s
c
a
l
e
)

1000
0.01
Stronger Material
Weaker Material
Approximate conversion from stress-life to strain-life: = (k
t
S)
2
/(SyE)
Brittle Fracture
What it is:
As the nominal or peak tensile stress increases, a part made from a normally ductile material
suddenly fractures or tears due to a manufacturing defect or fatigue crack
Not likely to be an issue for steels, but could be for aluminum

What is the critical material property?
Critical plane-strain fracture toughness, K
IC

Hand calculation methods:
Calculate stress intensity factor, KI, based on crack size, a, and geometry parameters, C and Q


Prediction can still be difficult, but a useful simplification to compare materials is:


Fracture is less likely if the material is less than a critical thickness



FEA methods:
Complicated
Ic I
K
Q
a
C K < =
t
o
2
1
|
|
.
|

\
|
~
Sy
K
a
Ic
critical
t
2
5 . 2 to 0 . 1
|
|
.
|

\
|
>
Sy
K
t
Ic
critical
Material Comparison
Density
(lbs/in)
70F
Yield
Strength
(psi)
70F
Ultimate
Strength
(psi)
70F
Design
Nominal
Strength
(psi)
%
Elongation
70F
Elastic
Modulus
(psi)
Fully-
Reversed
Peak Stress,
Nf = 30,000
cycles
(psi)
Fracture
Toughness
(psiinch)
Critical
Defect
Size
(inch)
Max
Thickness to
Avoid
Fracture
(inch)
4130
Steel
Sheet
0.283 75,000 90,000 30,000 8-12% 29,000,000
65,000 psi
(kt = 1)
160,000 psi
(kt = 5)
N/A if T>
-100F
N/A if
T>
-100F
N/A if T>
-100F
7075-
T6/T651
Aluminum
Plate
0.101 70,000 80,000 26,600 5-7% 10,300,000
46,000 psi
(kt = 1)
60,000 psi
(kt = 5)
24,000 0.034
0.117
0.294
Material Comparison
Density
(lbs/in)
70F
Yield
Strength
(psi)
70F
Ultimate
Strength
(psi)
70F
Design
Nominal
Strength
(psi)
%
Elongation
70F
Elastic
Modulus
(psi)
Fully-
Reversed
Peak Stress,
Nf = 30,000
cycles
(psi)
Fracture
Toughness
(psiinch)
Critical
Defect
Size
(inch)
Max
Thickness to
Avoid
Fracture
(inch)
4130
Steel
Sheet
0.283 75,000 90,000 30,000 8-12% 29,000,000
65,000 psi
(kt = 1)
160,000 psi
(kt = 5)
N/A if T>
-100F
N/A if
T>
-100F
N/A if T>
-100F
7075-
T6/T651
Aluminum
Plate
0.101 70,000 80,000 26,600 5-7% 10,300,000
46,000 psi
(kt = 1)
60,000 psi
(kt = 5)
24,000 0.034
0.117
0.294
Load Carrying Capacity Weight Elastic
Stiffness,
Buckling
Capacity
Fatigue Life Likelihood
of Brittle
Fracture
Overload
Capacity
Material Comparison
Conclusions
In terms of the two challenges:
1. Peak stress is often not a good predictor of when or how the part will fail
Load carrying capacity, elastic stiffness, and buckling capacity are driven by
nominal stress
Fatigue life is driven by peak stress, but notch sensitivity and material scatter
make life prediction difficult

2. Sometimes stronger materials make weaker parts
If choosing higher strength material, be careful not to make the part more likely
to fail by making it more notch sensitive or likely to fracture
Make sure you need the strength (load carrying capacity) otherwise higher
strength material will not make the part stiffer or less likely to buckle, and may
not improve fatigue life
Books
Roarks Formulas for Stress and Strain (buy
old and cheap)
Fracture and Fatigue Control in Structures by
Rolfe/Barsom (buy old and cheap)
Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of
Engineering Materials by Hertzberg (buy old
and cheap)
Design of Welded Structures or Design of
Weldments by Blodgett (buy new and cheap,
direct from Lincoln Electric)