1539pk TS - 1

Transient Angle Stability

Transient Angle Stability

Description of Transient Stability

An elementary view of TS

Methods of TS analysis

Time-domain simulation

Structure of power system model

Representation faults

Performance of protective relaying

Concept of electrical centre!

Case studies

Methods of TS enhancement

Ma"or blac#outs caused by Transient $nstability

%ovember &' (&)* %ortheast +S' ,ntario

blac#out

March ((' (&&& -ra.il blac#out

,utline
1539pk TS - 2
/hat is Transient 0Angle1 Stability2
/hat is Transient 0Angle1 Stability2

The ability of the power system to maintain

synchronous operation when sub"ected to a severe
transient disturbance

faults on transmission circuits' transformers'

buses

loss of generation

loss of loads

Response involves large e3cursions of generator

rotor angles4 influenced by nonlinear power-angle
relationship

Stability depends on both the initial operating state

of the system and the severity of the disturbance

Post-disturbance steady-state operating conditions

usually differ from pre-disturbance conditions
1539pk TS - 3

$n large power systems' transient instability may not

always occur as 5first swing5 instability

could be as a result of superposition of several

swing modes causing large e3cursions of rotor
angle beyond the first swing

Study period of interest in transient stability studies

is usually limited to 6 to * seconds following the
disturbance7

may e3tend up to about (8 seconds for very large

systems with dominant inter-area swing modes

Power system designed and operated to be stable for

specified set of contingencies referred to as 5normal
design contingencies5

selected on the basis that they have a reasonable

probability of occurrence

$n the future' probabilistic or ris#-based approach

may be used
1539pk TS - 4
(9 An :lementary ;iew of Transient
(9 An :lementary ;iew of Transient
Stability
Stability

Demonstrate the phenomenon using a very simple

system and simple models

System shown in <ig9 (69(

All resistances are neglected

=enerator is represented by the classical model

<ig9 (69( Single machine - infinite bus system
1539pk TS - 5

The generator>s electrical power output is

/ith the stator resistance neglected' P

e
represents the
air-gap power as well as the terminal power
<ig9 (69? System representation with generator
represented by classical model

sin sin
ma3
P
X
E E
P
T
B
e
1539pk TS - 6
Power-Angle Relationship
Power-Angle Relationship

-oth transmission circuits in-service4 Curve (

operate at point 5a5 0P
e
= P
m
1

,ne circuit out-of-service4 Curve ?

lower P
max

operate at point 5b5

higher reactance higher to transmit same

power
<ig9 (696 Power-angle relationship
1539pk TS - 7

The oscillation of is superimposed on the

synchronous speed
8

Speed deviation
the generator speed is practically e@ual to
8
' and the
per unit 0pu1 air-gap tor@ue may be considered to be
e@ual to the pu air-gap power

tor@ue and power are used interchangeably when

referring to the swing e@uation9
:@uation of Motion or Swing :@uation
where4
P
m
A mechanical power input 0pu1
P
max
A ma3imum electrical power output 0pm1
H A inertia constant 0M/-secBM;A1
A rotor angle 0elec9 radians1
t A time 0secs1
:ffects of Disturbance
:ffects of Disturbance
0 r
dt
d

<<

sin P P
dt
d H 2
max m
2
2
0

1539pk TS - 8
Response to a Short Circuit <ault
Response to a Short Circuit <ault

$llustrate the e@ual area criterion using the following

system4

:3amine the impact on stability of different fault

clearing times
1539pk TS - 9
Stable Case
Stable Case
Response to a fault cleared in t
cl
seconds - stable case
1539pk TS - 10
Stable Case
Stable Case cont>d cont>d
Pre-disturbance4

both circuits $BS 4 P

e
A P
m
' C A C
8

operating point a
<ault ,n4

operating point moves from a to b

inertia prevents C from changing instantaneously

P
m
D P
e
rotor accelerates to operating point c
Post <ault4

faulted circuit is tripped' operating point shifts to d

P
e
D P
m
rotor decelerates

rotor speed D
8
C increases

operating point moves from d to e such that A

(
A A
?

at e' speed A
8
' and C A C
m

P
e
D P
m
rotor decelerates7 speed below
8

C decreases and operating point retraces e to d

with no damping' rotor continues to oscillate

1539pk TS - 11
+nstable Case
+nstable Case
Response to a fault cleared in t
c?
seconds - unstable case
1539pk TS - 12
+nstable Case
+nstable Case cont>d cont>d

Area A
2
above P
m
is less than A
1

/hen the operating point reaches e' the #inetic

energy gained during the accelerating period has not
yet been completely e3pended
the speed is still greater than
8
and continues to
increase

-eyond point e, P
e
<P
m
, rotor begins to accelerate
again

The rotor speed and angle continue to increase

leading to loss of synchronism
1539pk TS - 13
<actors $nfluencing Transient Stability
<actors $nfluencing Transient Stability
0a1 Eow heavily the generator is initially loaded9
0b1 The generator output during the fault9 This depends
on the fault location and type9
0c1 The fault clearing time9
0d1 The post-fault transmission system reactance9
0e1 The generator reactance9 A lower reactance increases
pea# power and reduces initial rotor angle9
0f1 The generator inertia9 The higher the inertia' the
slower the rate of change angle9 This reduces the
#inetic energy gained during fault' i9e9 area A
1
is
reduced9
0g1 The generator internal voltage magnitude 0E
l
19 This
depends on the field e3citation9
0h1 The infinite bus voltage magnitude E
B
9
1539pk TS - 14
Practical Method of TS Analysis
Practical Method of TS Analysis

Practical power systems have comple3 networ#

structures

Accurate analysis of transient stability re@uires detailed

models for4

generating unit and controls

voltage dependent load characteristics

E;DC converters' <ACTs devices' etc9

At present' the most practical available method of

transient stability analysis is time domain simulation4

solution of nonlinear differential e@uations and

algebraic e@uations

step-by-step numerical integration techni@ues

complimented by efficient techni@ues for solving

non-linear highly sparse algebraic e@uations
1539pk TS - 15
?9 %umerical $ntegration Methods
?9 %umerical $ntegration Methods
Differential e@uations to be solved are nonlinear
ordinary differential e@uations with #nown initial
values4
x is the state vector of n dependent variables'
t is the independent variable 0time1
Objectie! solve x as a function of t' with the initial
values of x and t e@ual to x
0
and t
0
' respectively9
"ethods! :uler>s Method
Modified :uler>s Method
Runge-Futta 0R-F1 Methods
Trape.oidal Rule
( ) t x f
dt
dx
,
1539pk TS - 16
%umerical stability
%umerical stability

Depends on propagation of error

%umerically stable if early errors cause no significant

errors later

%umerically unstable otherwise

$mportant to consider numerical stability in the
application of numerical integration methods
1539pk TS - 17
Stiffness of Differential :@uations
Stiffness of Differential :@uations

Ratio of largest to smallest time constants or' more

precisely' eigenvalues

$ncreases with modelling detail

Affects numerical stability

Solution using e3plicit integration methods may

5blow up5 with stiff systems unless very small time
step is used9
1539pk TS - 18
%umerical Stability of :3plicit $ntegration
%umerical Stability of :3plicit $ntegration
Methods
Methods
:3plicit Methods

:uler>s' Predictor-Corrector' and R-F methods

Dependent variables 3 at any value of t is computed from

a #nowledge of the values of 3 from the previous time
steps
3
nG(
for 0nG(1
th
step is calculated e3plicitly by
evaluating f03't1 with #nown 3

:asy to implement for the solution of a comple3 set of

system state e@uations
Disadvantage

%ot numerically A-stable

step si.e limited by small time constants or

eigenvalues
1539pk TS - 19
$mplicit $ntegration Methods
$mplicit $ntegration Methods

Consider the differential e@uation

The solution for x at t=t
1
=t
0
#t may be e3pressed in
the integral form as

$mplicit methods use interpolation functions for the

e3pression under the integral

$nterpolation implies that the functions must pass

through the yet un#nown points at time t
(

$ra%e&oidal '(le is simplest method

( )

+ d x f x x
t
t
,
1
0
0 1
( )
0 0
, t t at x x with t x f
dt
dx

1539pk TS - 20
Trape.oidal Rule
Trape.oidal Rule

Simplest implicit method7 uses linear interpolation

$ntegral appro3imated by trape.oids

f(x,t)
f(x
0
,t
0
)
f(x
1
,t
1
)
t
0
t
1
t
t
<ig9 (69H
1539pk TS - 21

Trape.oidal rule is given by

A general formula giving the value of 3 at t=t
n#1
is

I
nG(
appears on both sides of :@uation

implies that the variable 3 is computed as a function

of its value at the previous time step as well as the
current value 0which is un#nown1

an implicit e@uation must be solved

%umerically A-stable 4 stiffness affects accuracy not

stability

Trape.oidal rule is a second order method

Eigher order methods difficult to program and less

robust
( ) ( ) [ ]
1 1 0 0 0 1
t , x f t , x f
2
t
x x + +

( ) ( ) [ ]
1 n 1 n n n n 1 n
t , x f t , x f
2
t
x x
+ + +
+ +

1539pk TS - 22
69 Simulation of Power System Dynamic
69 Simulation of Power System Dynamic
Response
Response
Structure of the Power System Model4
Components4

Synchronous generators' and the associated e3citation

systems and prime movers

$nterconnecting transmission networ# including static

loads

$nduction and synchronous motor loads

,ther devices such as E;DC converters and S;Cs

Monitored $nformation4

-asic stability information

-us voltages

Jine flows

Performance of protective relaying' particularly

transmission line protection
1539pk TS - 23
<ig9 (69K Structure of the complete power system model
for transient stability analysis
1539pk TS - 24

Models used must be appropriate for transient

stability analysis

transmission networ# and machine stator

transients are neglected

dynamics of machine rotors and rotor circuits'

e3citation systems' prime movers and other
devices such as E;DC converters are represented

:@uations must be organi.ed in a form suitable for

numerical integration

Jarge set of ordinary differential e@uations and large

sparse algebraic e@uations

differential-algebraic initial value problem

1539pk TS - 25
,verall System :@uations
,verall System :@uations

:@uations for each dynamic device4

where
3
d
A state vector of individual device
$
d
A ' and ) components of current in"ection from
the device into the networ#
;
d
A ' and ) components of bus voltage

%etwor# e@uation4
where
L
%
A networ# mode admittance matri3
$ A node current vector
; A node voltage vector
( )
( )
d d d d
d d d d
V x g I
V x f x
,
,

V Y I
N

1539pk TS - 26

,verall system e@uations4

comprises a set of first order differentials
and a set of algebraic e@uations
where
3 A state vector of the system
; A bus voltage vector
$ A current in"ection vector
Time t does not appear e3plicitly in the above
e@uations

Many approaches for solving these e@uations

characteri.ed by4
a1 The manner of interface between the differential and
algebraic e@uations4 partitioned or simultaneous
b1 $ntegration method used
c1 Method used for solving the algebraic e@uations4
-
=auss-Seidal method based on admittance matri3
-
direct solution using sparsity oriented triangular
factori.ation
-
iterative solution using %ewton-Raphson method
( ) V x f x ,

( ) V Y V x I
N
,
1539pk TS - 27

Analy.e transient stability including the effects of

rotor circuit dynamics and e3citation control of the
following power plant with four *** M;A units4

Disturbance4 Three phase fault on circuit M? at <'

cleared by tripping the circuit
:3ample (69?
:3ample (69?
<ig9 :(69)
1539pk TS - 28
*enerator %arameters!
The four generators of the plant are represented by an e@uivalent
generator whose parameters in per unit on ???8 M;A base are as
follows4
The above parameters are unsaturated values9 The effect of
saturation is to be represented assuming the d- and +,axes have
similar saturation characteristics based on ,CC
Excitation system %arameters!
The generators are e@uipped with thyristor e3citers with A;R and
PSS as shown in <ig9 (69(?' with parameters as follows4
The e3citer is assumed to be alternator supplied7 therefore :
<ma3
and
:
<min
are independent of E
t
Pre,fa(lt system condition in %( on 2220 "-A, 2. /- base!
P A 89& 0 A 89N6) 0overe3cited1
:
t
A (98 ?K96N :
-
A 89&88K( 8
1
d
=1231 1
+
=1245 1
d
=0260 1
+
=0257
1
d
=0226 1
+
=0227 1
1
=0217 '
a
=02006
$
o0
=320s $
+0
=120s $
d0
=0206s $
+o
=0204s
H = 627 8
0
= 0
99
9
99
9 99
9 9
99
8
A
= 200 $
'
= 02017s E
:max
= 420 E
:min
= ,52.
8
;$AB
= <27 $
=
= 12.1s $
1
= 0217.s $
2
= 02066s
-
smax
= 022 -
smin
= ,022
1539pk TS - 29
,b"ective
:3amine the stability of the system with the following
alternative forms of e3citation control4
0i1 Manual control' i9e9' constant E
fd
0ii1 A;R with no PSS
0iii1 A;R with PSS
Consider the following alternative fault clearing
times4
a1 898H s
b1 89(8 s
1539pk TS - 30

Computed using the =ill>s version of fourth order R-F

integration method with a time step of 898? s9

/ith constant E
fd
' the system is transiently stable

however' the level of damping of oscillations is

low

/ith a fast acting A;R and a high e3citer ceiling

voltage' the first rotor angle swing is significantly
reduced

however' the subse@uent swings are negatively

damped

post-fault system small-signal unstable

/ith the PSS' the rotor oscillations are very well

damped without compromising the first swing
stability
Case 0a14 Transient response with the fault clearing
time e@ual to 898H s
1539pk TS - 31
<ig9 :(69H0a1 Rotor angle response with fault
cleared in 898H s
<ig9 :(69H0b1 Active power response with fault
cleared in 898H s
1539pk TS - 32
<ig9 :(69H0c1 Terminal voltage response with fault
cleared in 898H s
<ig9 :(69H0d1 :3citer output voltage response with
fault cleared in 898H s
1539pk TS - 33

Responses of rotor angle with the three alternative

forms of e3citation control are computed

/ith constant :fd' the generator is first swing

unstable

/ith a fast acting e3citer and A;R' the generator

maintains first swing stability' but loses synchronism
during the second swing

The addition of PSS contributes to the damping of

second and subse@uent swings
+se of a fast e3citer having a high ceiling
voltage and e@uipped with a PSS contributes
significantly to the enhancement of the overall
system stabilityO
Case 0b14 Transient response with the fault clearing
time tc e@ual to 89( s
1539pk TS - 34
<ig9 :(69K Rotor angle response with fault cleared
in 89( s
1539pk TS - 35
*9 Representation of <aults in Stability
*9 Representation of <aults in Stability
Studies
Studies

Positive-se@uence networ# is represented in detail

%egative- and .ero-se@uence voltages and currents

throughout the system are usually not of interest in
stability studies

unnecessary to simulate the complete negative- and

.ero-se@uence networ#s in system stability
simulations
effects represented by e@uivalent impedances 0P
?

and P
8
1 as viewed at the fault point <

$mpedances are combined appropriately as the

effective fault impedance P
ef
1539pk TS - 36
)9 Performance of Protective Relaying
)9 Performance of Protective Relaying

Monitor' detect abnormal conditions' select brea#ers

to be opened' and energi.e trip circuits

Three re@uirements4 selectivity' speed' and reliability

distinguish between stable swings and out-of-step

operate when needed and only when needed

operate sufficiently fast

coordinate with other relays

<unction of certain relays essential to ensure

transient stability

Special relaying may be used to separate systems

Mostly interested in transmission line protection

1539pk TS - 37
Transmission Jine Protection
Transmission Jine Protection
<actors

Type of circuit4 single line7 parallel line' multi-

terminal' magnitude of fault current infeeds' etc9

<unction of line' its effect on service continuity'

speed with which fault has to be cleared

Coordination and matching re@uirements

Three basic types4
a1 overcurrent relaying
b1 distance relaying' and
c1 pilot relaying
1539pk TS - 38
0a1 ,vercurrent Relaying
0a1 ,vercurrent Relaying

Simplest and cheapest form of line protection

Two basic forms4 instantaneous overcurrent relay and

time overcurrent relay

Difficult to apply where coordination' selectivity' and

speed are important

changes to their settings are usually re@uired as

system configuration changes

cannot discriminate between load and fault currents7

therefore' when used for phase-fault protection' they
are applicable only when the minimum fault current
e3ceeds the full load current

+sed principally on subtransmission systems' and

radial distribution systems

faults here usually do not affect system stability so

high-speed protection is not re@uired
1539pk TS - 39
0b1 Distance Relaying
0b1 Distance Relaying

Responds to a ratio of measured voltage to measured

current

$mpedance is a measure of distance along the line

Relatively better discrimination and selectivity' by

limiting relay operation to a certain range of the
impedance

Types

impedance relay

reactance relay

mho relay

modified mho and impedance relays' and hybrids

Most widely used form for protection of transmission

lines

Triggering characteristics shown conveniently on

R-I plane
1539pk TS - 40
<ig9 (69?K Distance relay characteristics displayed on a
coordinate system with resistance 0'1 as the abscissa'
and reactance 011 as the ordinate
1539pk TS - 41
Three .one approach4

Pone ( primary protection for protected line

K8Q reach and instantaneous

Pone ? primary protection for protected line

(?8Q reach and timed 0896 - 89* s1

Pone 6 remote bac#up protection for ad"acent line

covers ne3t line and timed 0? s1

<ig9 (69?& Distance relay characteristic
1539pk TS - 42
0c1 Pilot Relaying Schemes
0c1 Pilot Relaying Schemes

+se communication channels 0pilots1 between the

terminals of the line that they protect

Determine whether the fault is internal or e3ternal to

the protected line' and this information is transmitted

<or an internal fault' circuit brea#ers at all terminals

of the protected line are tripped7 for an e3ternal fault
the tripping is bloc#ed

>omm(nication medi(m may be pilot wire 0metallic

wires1' power-line carrier' microwave' or fibre optic
1539pk TS - 43
:ach terminal station of the line has4

?nderreachin@ &one 1 phase and ground directional

distance relays covering about H*-K8Q of the line
trip local brea#ers instantaneously

Oerreachin@ &one 2 phase and ground directional

distance relays covering about (?8Q of the impedance of
the protected line9
send permissive signal to remote end
trip local brea#ers if permissive signal received
from remote end
if apparent P remains inside relay characteristic
for fi3ed time 0typically 89N s1' local brea#ers
tripped without receiving permissive signal
<ig9 (6968 Permissive overreaching relay
Permissive ,verreaching Scheme4
1539pk TS - 44
<ig9 (696( Relay characteristic at statio !
<ig9 (696( "a#lt locatios "
1
, "
2
a$ "
3
1539pk TS - 45
<ault Clearing Times
<ault Clearing Times

Composed of relay time and brea#er operating time

:E; relays4 (-? cycles

Circuit brea#ers4 ?-N cycles

-rea#er failure bac#up protection provided for each

brea#er on all critical circuits

if a brea#er fails to operate at a local station' trip

signals sent to ad"acent .one brea#ers and remote
end brea#ers
1539pk TS - 46
%otes4
0i1 <or purposes of illustration' ? cycle brea#ers have been assumed at
A and 6 cycle brea#ers at -
0ii1 Communication time depends on channel medium used9 /ith power
line carrier' the time may be longer
Jocal 0-us A1 brea#ers (
and ?
Remote 0-us -1 brea#ers 6
and N
Primary relay time
0<ault detection1
?* ms ?* ms
Au3iliary relay0s1 time 6 ms & ms
Communication time - (H ms 0microwave1
-rea#er trip module 6 ms 6 ms
-rea#er clearing time 66 ms 0? cycles1 *8 ms 06 cycles1
Total Time )N ms (8N ms
<ault cleared from bus A in )N milliseconds
<ault cleared from bus - in (8N milliseconds
<ig9 (696N Typical fault clearing times for a normally
cleared fault
1539pk TS - 47
%otes4
-rea#er failure timer setting has been assumed to be &8 ms for the ? cycle brea#er N9
This could vary from one application to another9 <or a 6 cycle oil brea#er a typical
value is (*8 ms
<ig9 (696N Typical fault clearing times for a stuc# brea#er
fault
Jocal
-rea#er *
Remote
brea#ers
) and H
Jocal bac#up
brea#er 6
Remote bac#up
brea#ers
( and ?
Primary relay time 0at
bus -1
?* ms ?* ms ?* ms ?* ms
Au3iliary relay0s1 time 6 ms & ms ) ms (? ms
Communication
channel time
- (H ms - (H ms
-rea#er failure timer
setting
- - &8 ms &8 ms
-rea#er tripping
module time
6 ms 6 ms 6 ms 6 ms
-rea#er time 66 ms *8 ms 66 ms 66 ms
Total time )N ms (8N ms (*H ms (K8 ms
<ault cleared from bus C in (8N milliseconds
<ault cleared from bus - in (*H milliseconds
<ault cleared from bus A in (K8 milliseconds
-rea#er N assumed to be stuc#
-rea#ers (' ?' 6' N' and * assumed to be ? cycle air-blast brea#ers 066 ms1
-rea#ers ) and H assumed to be 6 cycle oil brea#ers 0*8 ms1
1539pk TS - 48
Relaying Ruantities During Swings
Relaying Ruantities During Swings
The performance of protective relaying during electro-
mechanical oscillations and out-out-step conditions
illustrated by considering the following system4
0a1 Schematic diagram
0b1 :@uivalent circuit
<ig9 (696) T%o &achie syste&
The current ) is given by
The voltage at bus C is
T
B A
Z
E E
I
0 '

I Z E E
A A C
' ' '

1539pk TS - 49
The apparent impedance seen by an impedance relay at C
loo#ing towards the line is given by
$f :
A
A:
-
A(98 pu
0 E E
E
A A
)
B
)
B
A E
B
)
B
E
B
A
B A
A
$ A
A A >
>

( ) ( )

,
_

,
_

1
]
1

,
_

+
+
+ +
+
+ +
+ +
+

+
2
cot
2
A
j A
2
A
sin 2
cos 1
j
2
1
A A
sin j 2
sin j cos 1
A A
1 0 1 1 0 1
1 0 1
A A
1 0 1
A
A A
$
A
$
$ A
$ A
$ A
$
A >

1539pk TS - 50
During a swing' the angle changes9 <ig9 (696H shows
the locus of A
>
as a function of on an ',1 diagram' when
:
A
A:
-
%ote4 ,rigin is assumed to be at C' where the relay is located9
<ig9 (696H Jocus of A
>
as a function of ' with E
A
=E
B
1539pk TS - 51

/hen E
A
and E
B
are e@ual' the locus of A
>
is seen to be a
straight line which is the perpendicular bisector of the
total system impedance between A and -' i9e9' of the
impedance P
T

the angle formed by lines from A and - to any

point on the locus is e@ual to the corresponding
angle

/hen A8' the current I is .ero and A

>
is infinite

/hen A(K8S' the voltage at the electrical centre is .ero

the relay at C in effect will see a 6-phase fault at

the electrical centre9 The electrical centre and
impedance centre coincide in this case9

$f E
A
is not e@ual to E
B
' the apparent impedance loci are
circles' with their centres on e3tensions of the
impedance line A
B

/hen E
A
DE
B
' the electrical centre will be above the
impedance centre7 when E
A
TE
B
' the electrical centre will
be below the impedance centre9 <ig9 (696K illustrates the
shape of the apparent impedance loci for three different
values of the ratio E
A
C E
B
9
1539pk TS - 52
<ig9 (696K Joci of P
C
with different values of :
A
B:
-
1539pk TS - 53

<or generators connected to the main system through a

Dea/ transmission system 0high e3ternal impedance1'
the electrical centre may appear on the transmission line

/hen a generator is connected to the main system

through a stron@ transmission system' the electrical
centre will be in the step up transformer or possibly
within the generator itself

:lectrical centres in effect are not fi3ed points4 effective

machine reactance and the magnitudes of internal
voltages vary during dynamic conditions9

;oltage at the electrical centre drops to .ero as

increases to (K8S and then increases in magnitude as
increases further until it reaches 6)8S

when reaches (K8S' the generator will have

sli%%ed a %ole7 when reaches the initial value
where the swing started' one slip cycle will have
been completed9
1539pk TS - 54
Prevention of Transmission Jine Tripping
Prevention of Transmission Jine Tripping
During Transient Conditions
During Transient Conditions
Re@uirements for prevention of tripping during swing
conditions fall into two categories4

Prevention of tripping during stable swings' while

allowing tripping for unstable transients9

Prevention of tripping during unstable transients' and

forcing separation at another point9
Prevention of tripping during stable transients

UmhoV distance relay characteristic may be too large

and have regions into which stable swings may enter

$n order to minimi.e the possibility of tripping during

stable swings4

use of ohm units 0blinders1

composite relays

shaped relay 0lens' peanut' etc91

1539pk TS - 55
Tripping can occur
only for impedance
between ,
(
and ,
?
'
and within M
<ig9 (69N6 Reduction of mho relay angular range
<ig9 (69NN Shaped Relay
1539pk TS - 56
,ut-of-Step -loc#ing and Tripping Relays
,ut-of-Step -loc#ing and Tripping Relays

$n some cases' it may be desirable to prevent tripping of

lines at the natural separation point' and choose the
separation point so that4
a1 load and generation are better balanced on both
sides' or
b1 a critical load is protected' or
c1 the separation is at a corporate boundary9

$n certain instances' it may be desirable to trip faster in

order to prevent voltage declining too far9
Princi%le of o(t,of,ste% relayin@!

Movement of the apparent impedance under out-of-step

conditions is slow compared to its movement when a line
fault occurs

transient swing condition can be detected using two

relays having vertical or circular characteristics on an
',1 plane

if time re@uired to cross the two characteristics

0,,S?' ,,S(1 e3ceeds a specified value' the out-of-
step function is initiated
1539pk TS - 57
<ig9 (69N* (#t-o)-ste* relayi+ sche&es
1539pk TS - 58

$n an o(t,of,ste% tri%%in@ scheme' local brea#ers

would be tripped9 such a scheme could be used to

speed up tripping to voltage decline

ensure tripping of a selected line' instead of other

more critical circuits

$n an o(t,of,ste% bloc/in@ scheme'

relays are prevented from initiating tripping of the

line monitored' and transfer trip signals are sent
to open circuits of a remote location

ob"ective is to cause system separation at a more

preferable location
1539pk TS - 59
H9 Case Study - Transient Stability
H9 Case Study - Transient Stability

The ob"ect

demonstrate transient instability and actions of

protective relaying

show methods of maintaining stability

The system

??H& buses' N)H generators' and )*K( branches

the focus is on a plant with K nuclear units' with a

total capacity of H888 M/

all generators and associated controls are modelled

in detail

loads are modelled using voltage-dependent static

load model 0PA*8Q l G *8Q P' RA(88Q P1
1539pk TS - 60
<ig9 (69*? Diagram of system in the vicinity of a H888 M/
nuclear power plant
1539pk TS - 61
The Contingency4

Double line-to-ground 0JJ=1 fault occurs on the *88 #;

double circuit line at Wunction I
Time 0ms1 :vent
8 %o disturbance
(88 Apply JJ= fault at Wunction I on circuits ( and ?
()N Jocal end clearing4
,pen brea#ers at bus ( for circuit (
,pen brea#ers at bus ? for circuit ?
This occurs )N ms after the fault is applied' and this time is computed as
the sum of fault detection time 0?* ms1' au3iliary relay time 0) ms1' and
the brea#er clearing time 066 ms A ? cycle19 At this time' the fault remains
connected on the ends of circuits ( and ? at Wunction I
(KH Remote end clearing4
,pen brea#ers at bus N for circuit ?
,pen brea#ers at bus 6 for circuit (
Clear fault 0the line is isolated1
This occurs KH ms after the fault is applied' and the time is calculated as
the sum of fault detection time 0?* ms1' au3iliary relay time 0(? ms1'
communication time 0(H ms7 microwave1' and brea#er clearing time 066
ms A ? cycle1
*888 Terminate simulation
1539pk TS - 62
Simulation4

A * second simulation was performed

=6 is seen to lose synchronism and becomes

monotonically unstable

similar behaviour for the other H units of the nuclear

plant

As =( to =K become unstable' the rest of the system

becomes generation deficient

absolute angles of all machines in the system drift

slightly
<ig9 (69*6 Rotor angle time response
1539pk TS - 63
Analysis4
Eow does the system come apart as a result of instability2

,ut-of-step protection does not operate on =6

<ig9 (69*N +nit =6 out-of-step protection
1539pk TS - 64
<ig9 (69** Jine protection 0circuit 61 at bus (
<ig9 (69*) Jine protection 0circuit 61 at bus H
1539pk TS - 65
Jine Protection4

Mho distance relays have .one ( coverage of about H*Q of

line length' and .one ? over-reach of about (?*Q of line
length

Apparent impedance enters the .one ? relays at bus ( and

enters .one ( and .one ? relays at bus H

.one ( relay at bus H would trip circuit 6 at bus H and

send a transfer trip signal to brea#ers at bus ( which
would then trip circuit 6 at bus (

true for the companion *88 #; circuit 0MN1 which would

be tripped in an identical manner

<ollowing the loss of the *88 #; circuits 0at appro3imately

89K seconds1' the remaining ?68 #; circuits would become
e3tremely over-loaded and would be lost through protection
actions' thereby completely isolating the unstable plant from
the system

$mpedance plot shows the impedance swing crosses the

circuit at a point about KNQ of the line length from bus (

represents the electrical centre following the

disturbance' and is theoretically where separation
occurs
1539pk TS - 66
-us ;oltages4
<ig9 (69*H ;oltages at buses (' H and the electrical
centre
1539pk TS - 67
Methods of Maintaining Stability4

Reduction of the pre-contingency output of the plant

costly to bottle energy in the plant

Tripping of ? generating units 0generation re"ection1

following the disturbance
<ig9 (69*K +nit =6 rotor angle response with and
without generation re"ection
1539pk TS - 68
K9 Transient Stability :nhancement
K9 Transient Stability :nhancement
,b"ectives4

Reduce the disturbing influence by minimi.ing the

fault severity and duration

$ncrease the restoring synchroni.ing forces

Reduce accelerating tor@ue through control of prime-

mover mechanical power

Reduce accelerating tor@ue by applying artificial load

1539pk TS - 69
Eigh-Speed <ault Clearing
Eigh-Speed <ault Clearing

Amount of #inetic energy gained by the generators

during a fault is directly proportional to the fault duration

@uic#er the fault is cleared' the less disturbance it

causes

Two-cycle brea#ers' together with high speed relays and

communication' are now widely used in locations where
rapid fault clearing is importance

$n special circumstances' even faster clearing may be

desirable

development and application of a ( cycle circuit

brea#er by -onneville Power Administration 0-PA1

combined with a rapid response overcurrent type

sensor' which anticipates fault magnitude' nearly
one-cycle total fault duration is attained

ultra high speed relaying system for :E; lines based

on traveling wave detection

not in widespread use

1539pk TS - 70
Reduction of Transmission System
Reduction of Transmission System
Reactance
Reactance

Series inductive reactances of transmission networ#s

are primary determinants of stability limits

reduction of reactances of various elements of the

transmission networ# improves transient stability
by increasing post-fault synchroni.ing power
transfers

Most direct way of achieving this is by reducing the

reactances of transmission circuits

voltage rating' line and conductor configurations'

and number of parallel circuits determine the
reactances of transmission lines

Additional methods of reducing the networ#

reactances4

use of transformers with lower lea#age reactances

series capacitor compensation of transmission

lines
1539pk TS - 71

Typically' the per unit transformer lea#age reactance

ranges between 89( and 89(*

for newer transformers' the minimum acceptable

lea#age reactance that can be achieved within the
normal transformer design practices has to be
established in consultation with the manufacturer

May be a significant economic advantage in opting for a

transformer with the lowest possible reactance

Series capacitors directly offset the line series reactance

the ma3imum power transfer capability of a

transmission line may be significantly increased by
the use of series capacitor ban#s

directly translates into enhancement of transient

stability' depending on the facilities provided for
bypassing the capacitor during faults and for
reinsertion after fault clearing

speed of reinsertion is an important factor in

maintaining transient stability7 using nonlinear
resistors of .inc o3ide' the reinsertion is practically
instantaneous
1539pk TS - 72

,ne problem with series capacitor compensation is the

possibility of subsynchronous resonance with the
nearby turbo alternators

must be analy.ed carefully and appropriate

preventive measures ta#en

Series capacitors have been used to compensate very

long overhead lines

recently' there has been an increasing recognition

of the advantages of compensating shorter' but
heavily loaded' lines using series capacitors

<or transient stability applications' the use of switched

series capacitors offers some advantages

can be switched in upon detection of a fault or

power swing' and then removed about half second
later

can be located in a substation where it can serve

several lines

protective relaying is made more comple3 when

series compensation is used' and more so if the
series capacitors are switched
1539pk TS - 73
Regulated Shunt Compensation
Regulated Shunt Compensation

Can improve system stability by increasing the flow

of synchroni.ing power among interconnected
generators 0voltage profile control1

Static ;AR compensators can be used for this

purpose
<ig9 ((9)8 Performance of a )88 #m line with an S;S
regulating midpoint voltage
1539pk TS - 74
Regulated Shunt Compensation
Regulated Shunt Compensation
0cont>d1
0cont>d1
<ig9 ((9)? Power-angle relationships with regulated
compensation at discrete intervals dividing line
into n independent sections
n XBn 0degrees1
( NN9H8 (988
? ??96* (9K*
6 (N9&8 ?9HN
N ((9(H 69)6
) H9N* *9N?
K *9*& H9??
(8 N9NH &986
ma3 ma3
P P
1539pk TS - 75
Dynamic -ra#ing
Dynamic -ra#ing

+ses the concept of applying an artificial electrical

load during a transient disturbance to increase the
electrical power output of generators and thereby
reduce rotor acceleration

,ne form of dynamic bra#ing involves switching in

shunt resistors for about 89* seconds following a
fault to reduce accelerating power of nearby
generators and remove the #inetic energy gained
during the fault

-PA has used such a scheme for enhancing

transient stability for faults in the +S Pacific
%orthwest

bra#e consists of a (N88 M/' ?N8 #; resistor

made up of N*'888 ft9 of (B?5 stainless steel wire
strung on 6 towers
1539pk TS - 76

To date' bra#ing resistors have been applied only to

hydraulic generating stations remote from load centres

hydraulic units' in comparison to thermal units' are

@uite rugged7 they can' therefore' withstand the
sudden shoc# of switching in resistors without any
adverse effect on the units

$f bra#ing resistors are applied to thermal units' the

effect on shaft fatigue life must be carefully e3amined

$f the switching duty is found unacceptable' the

resistors may have to be switched in three or four steps
spread over one full cycle of the lowest torsional mode

-ra#ing resistors used to date are all shunt devices

series resistors may be used to provide the bra#ing

effect

the energy dissipated is proportional to the

generator current rather than voltage

way of inserting the resistors in series is to install a

star-connected three-phase resistor arrangement
with a bypass switch in the neutral of the generator-
step-up transformer to reduce resistor insulation and
switch re@uirements

resistor is inserted during a transient disturbance by

opening the bypass switch
1539pk TS - 77

Another form of bra#ing resistor application' which

enhances system stability for only unbalanced
ground faults' consists of a resistor connected
permanently between ground and the neutral of the L
connected high voltage winding of the generator
step-up transformer

under balanced conditions no current flows

through the neutral resistor

when line-to-ground or double line-to-ground

faults occur' current flows through the neutral
connection and the resistive losses act as a
dynamic bra#e

/ith switched form of bra#ing resistors' the

switching times should be based on detailed
simulations

if the resistors remain connected too long' there is

a possibility of instability on the 5bac#swing5
1539pk TS - 78
Reactor Switching
Reactor Switching

Shunt reactors near generators provide a simple and

convenient means of improving transient stability

Reactor normally remains connected to the networ#

Resulting reactive load increases the generator

internal voltage and reduces internal rotor angle

<ollowing a fault' the reactor is switched out which

further improves stability
1539pk TS - 79
Steam Turbine <ast ;alving
Steam Turbine <ast ;alving

Applicable to thermal units to assist in maintaining

power system transient stability

$nvolves rapid closing and opening of steam valves in

a prescribed manner to reduce the generator
accelerating power' following the recognition of a
severe transmission system fault

+se recogni.ed in the early (&68s' but it has not been

very widely applied for several reasons

concerns for any possible adverse effects on the

turbine and energy supply system

Since the mid-(&)8s' utilities have reali.ed that fast

valving could be an effective method of improving
system stability in some situations

number of technical papers have been published

describing the basic concepts and effects of fast
valving

several utilities have tested and implemented fast

valving on some of their units
1539pk TS - 80
<ast ;alving Procedures
<ast ;alving Procedures

The main inlet control valves 0C;1 and the reheat intercept
valves 0$;1 provide a convenient means of controlling the
turbine mechanical power

;ariety of possibilities e3ist for the implementation of fast

valving schemes

Common scheme4 only the intercept valves are rapidly

closed and then fully reopened after a short time delay

since the intercept valves control nearly H8Q of the

total unit power' this method results in a fairly
significant reduction in turbine power

More pronounced temporary reduction in turbine power

can be achieved through actuation of both control and
intercept valves

Procedure of rapid closing and subse@uent full opening

of the valves is called momentary fast valving

Due to the post-fault transmission system being much

wea#er than the pre-fault one' it may be desirable to have
the prime-mover power' after being reduced rapidly' return
to a level lower than the initial power

sustained fast valving

1539pk TS - 81
=enerator Tripping
=enerator Tripping

Selective tripping of generating units for severe

transmission system contingencies has been used as a
method of improving system stability for many years

Re"ection of generation at an appropriate location in the

system reduces power to be transferred over the critical
transmission interfaces

+nits can be tripped rapidly so this is a very effective means

of improving transient stability

Eistorically' the application confined to hydro plants7 now

used on fossil and nuclear plants

Many utilities design thermal units so that' after tripping'

they continue to run' supplying unit au3iliaries7 permits the
units to re resynchroni.ed to the system and restored to full
load in about (* to 68 minutes

Ma"or turbine-generator concerns4

the overspeed resulting from tripping the generator

thermal stresses due to the rapid load changes

high levels of shaft tor@ues due to successive

disturbances
1539pk TS - 82
Controlled System Separation and Joad
Controlled System Separation and Joad
Shedding
Shedding

May be used to prevent a ma"or disturbance in one part of

an interconnected system from propagating into the rest of
the system and causing a severe system brea#up

Severe disturbance usually characteri.ed by sudden

changes in tie line power

if detected in time and the information is used to

initiate corrective actions' severe system upsets can
be averted

$mpending instability detected by monitoring one or more of

the following4 sudden change in power flow through
specific transmission circuits' change of bus voltage angle'
rate of power change' and circuit brea#er au3iliary contacts

+pon detection of the impeding instability' controlled

system separation is initiated by opening the appropriate tie
lines before cascading outages can occur

$n some instances it may be necessary to shed selected

loads to balance generation and load in the separated
systems

:3amples4 PB relay on the tie lines between ,ntario

Eydro and Manitoba Eydro
1539pk TS - 83
Eigh-Speed :3citation Systems
Eigh-Speed :3citation Systems

Significant improvements in transient stability can be

achieved through rapid temporary increase of generator
e3citation

$ncrease of generator field voltage during a transient

disturbance has the effect of increasing the internal voltage
of the machine' which in turn increases synchroni.ing power

Eigh initial response e3citation systems with high ceiling

voltages are most effective in this regard

ceiling voltages limited by generator rotor insulation

considerations

for thermal units' limited to about ?9* to 698 times rated-

load field voltage

<ast e3citation response to terminal voltage variations'

re@uired for improvement of transient stability' often leads to
degrading the damping of local plant mode oscillations

Supplementary e3citation control' commonly referred to as

power system stabili.er 0PSS1 provides a convenient means
of damping system oscillations

+se of high initial response e3citation systems

supplemented with PSS is by far the most effective and
economical method of enhancing the overall system stability
1539pk TS - 84
Discontinuous :3citation Control
Discontinuous :3citation Control

Properly applied PSS provides damping to both local and inter-

area modes of oscillations

+nder large signal or transient conditions' the stabili.er

generally contributes positively to first swing stability

$n the presence of both local and inter-area swing modes'

however' the normal stabili.er response can allow the
e3citation to be reduced after the pea# of the first local-mode
swing and before the highest composite pea# of the swing is
reached

Additional improvements in transient stability can be reali.ed

by #eeping the e3citation at ceiling' within terminal voltage
constraints' until the highest point of the swing is reached

Discontinuous e3citation control scheme referred to as

Transient Stability :3citation Control 0TS:C1 has been
developed by ,ntario Eydro to achieve the above

improves transient stability by controlling the generator

e3citation so that the terminal voltage is maintained near
the ma3imum permissible value of about (9(? to (9(* pu
over the entire positive swing of the rotor angle
1539pk TS - 85

uses a signal proportional to change in angle of

the generator rotor' in addition to the terminal
voltage and rotor speed signals

angle signal is used only during the transient

period of about ? seconds following a severe
disturbance' since it results in oscillatory
instability if used continuously

angle signal prevents premature reversal of field

voltage and hence maintains the terminal voltage
at a high level during the positive swing of the
rotor angle

e3cessive terminal voltage is prevented by the

terminal voltage limiter

/hen TS:C used on several generating stations in an

area7

system voltage level in the entire area is raised

increases power consumed by loads in the entire

area' contributing to further improvement in TS
1539pk TS - 86
<ig9 (H9H -loc# diagram of TS:C scheme
<ig9 (H9K :ffect of TS:C on transient stability
1539pk TS - 87
$ntegrating E;DC Parallel Jin#s
$ntegrating E;DC Parallel Jin#s

E;DC lin#s are highly controllable9 Possible to ta#e

advantage of this uni@ue characteristic of the E;DC lin#
to augment the transient stability of the ac system

Parallel application with ac transmission can be

effectively used to bypass ac networ# congestion

,ften' provides the best option for using limited right of

way

Provides a firewall against cascading outages during

ma"or system disturbances
<or e3ample' during the August ?886 -lac#out of
northeast +S and eastern Canada'

Ruebec was unaffected

AC lin#s from %ew Lor# to %ew :ngland tripped7

however' E;DC lin#s from Ruebec continued to
supply power to %ew :ngland

/ith the present day technology based on self Y

commutated voltage sourced converters' transient
stability augmentation can also be achieved by
controlling the E;DC converters so as to provide
reactive power and voltage support9
1539pk TS - 88
:3amples of E;DC Parallel Jin#s
:3amples of E;DC Parallel Jin#s

Pacific E;DC $nter-tie in the +S west

(N88 #m long NN8 #; bipolar E;DC overhead line from

Columbia River in ,regon to Jos Angeles' California

-uilt in the early (&H8s' with a capacity of ('NN8 M/7

upgraded over the years to 6'(88 M/

Eas operated successfully for over 68 years in parallel

with *88 #; AC transmission

$taipu E;DC Jin# in -ra.il

K88 #m long )88 #; bipolar E;DC overhead line

from <o. du $guacu hydro power plant to the load
centre in the city of Sao Paulo

6'(*8 M/ E;DC lin# built in the mid (&K8s

Eas operated successfully for over ?8 years in

parallel with H)* #; AC transmission networ#

Ruebec- %ew :ngland multi-terminal E;DC system

(*88 M/' (*88 #m N*8 #; bipolar E;DC lin# built

in the early (&&8s

-rings power from Wames -ay Eydro plants to

-oston' Massachusetts area

Comprises five terminals7 normally operates as a

three-terminal lin#
1539pk TS - 89
;SC--ased E;DC Technology
;SC--ased E;DC Technology

E;DC transmission systems built over the years use

converter bridge circuits that rely on natural voltage
of the ac system for commutation4 line-commutated
converter technology!

Results in generation of lower-order harmonics

and consumption of reactive power' which in turn
call for counter measures

$n recent years' self-commutated voltage-sourced

converter 0;SC1 technology! has been developed and
advanced for E;DC transmission application with the
following technical benefits4

Active and reactive power can be controlled

independently

:3cellent dynamic response

Can be connected to very wea# ac networ#

Earmonic filter re@uirements are significantly less

=ood blac#-start! capability

Jower overall footprint! re@uirements

;SC-based E;DC converters are more e3pensive and

have higher losses

Depending on the nature of the application' these

may not be significant issues
1539pk
%ovember &' (&)* -lac#out of
%ovember &' (&)* -lac#out of
%ortheast +S and ,ntario
%ortheast +S and ,ntario
1539pk TS - 91
%ovember &' (&)* - -lac#out of
%ovember &' (&)* - -lac#out of
%ortheast +S and Canada
%ortheast +S and Canada

Clear day with mild weather7

Joad levels in the regional normal

Problem began at *4() p9m9

/ithin a few minutes' there was a complete shut

down of electric service to

virtually all of the states of %ew Lor#'

Connecticut' Rhode $sland' Massachusetts'
;ermont

parts of %ew Eampshire' %ew Wersey and

Pennsylvania

most of ,ntario' Canada

%early 68 million people were without power for

about (6 hours

President Wohnson ordered Chairman of <ederal

Power Commission to conduct an immediate
investigation

Developments that followed had a ma"or impact on

the industryO
1539pk TS - 92
%orth American :astern $nterconnected
%orth American :astern $nterconnected
System
System
1539pk TS - 93
:vents that Caused the (&)* -lac#out
:vents that Caused the (&)* -lac#out

The initial event was the operation of a bac#up relay

0Pone 61 at -ec# =S in ,ntario near %iagara <alls

opened circuit R?&-D' one of five ?68 #;

circuits connecting -ec# =S to load centers in
Toronto and Eamilton

Prior to opening of R?&-D' the five circuits were

carrying

(?88 M/ of -ec# generation' and

*88 M/ import from /estern %L State on

%iagara ties

%et import from %L 688 M/

Joading on R?&-D was 6)( M/ at ?NK #;7

The relay setting corresponded to 6H* M/

1539pk TS - 94
:vents that Caused the (&)* -lac#out
:vents that Caused the (&)* -lac#out
0cont>d1 0cont>d1
-ec#
1539pk TS - 95
:vents that Caused the (&)* -lac#out
:vents that Caused the (&)* -lac#out
0cont>d1 0cont>d1

,pening of R?&-D resulted in se@uential tripping of

the remaining four parallel circuits

Power flow reversed to %ew Lor#

total change of (H88 M/

Power surge bac# to ,ntario via St9 Jawrence ties

ties tripped by protective relaying

=enerators in /estern %ew Lor# and -ec# =S lost

synchronism' followed by cascading outages

After about H seconds from the initial disturbance

system split into several separate islands

eventually most generation and load lost7

inability of islanded systems to stabili.e
1539pk TS - 96
Special Protections $mplemented after the
Special Protections $mplemented after the
(&)* -lac#out
(&)* -lac#out

P Relays on %iagara Ties

trip %iagara ties to %L7

cross-trip St9 Jawrence ties to %L

in place until mid (&K8s

+nderfre@uency load shedding 0+<JS1 throughout the

interconnected system

beginning of the use of +<JS by industry

1539pk TS - 97
<ormation of Reliability Councils
<ormation of Reliability Councils

%ortheast Power Coordinating Council 0%PCC1

formed in Wanuary (&))

to improve coordination in planning and operation

among utilities in the region that was blac#ed out

first Regional Reliability Council 0RRC1 in %orth

America

,ther eight RRCs formed in the following months

%ationalB%orth American :lectric Reliability Council

0%:RC1 established in (&)K
1539pk TS - 98
Reliability :nhancement after the (&)*
Reliability :nhancement after the (&)*
-lac#out
-lac#out

All utilities in %orth America began to review

reliability related policies' practices and procedures

Coordination of activities and information e3change

between neighbouring utilities became a priority

:ach Regional Council established detailed Reliability

criteria and guidelines for member systems

Power system stability studies became an important

part of operating studies

led to the development of improved Transient

Stability programs

e3change of data between utilities

Many of these developments has had an influence on

utility practices worldwide
1539pk
March ((' (&&&
March ((' (&&&
-ra.il -lac#out
-ra.il -lac#out
1539pk TS - 100
March ((' (&&& -ra.il -lac#out
March ((' (&&& -ra.il -lac#out

Time4 ??4()488h' System Joad4 6N'?88 M/

Description of the event4

J-= fault at -auru substation as a result of lightning

causing a bus insulator flashover

The bus arrangement at -auru such that the fault is

cleared by opening five NN8 #; lines

The power system survived the initial event' but

resulted in instability when a short heavily loaded
NN8 #; line was tripped by .one 6 relay

Cascading outages of several power plants in Sao

Paulo area' followed by loss of E;DC and H*8 #; AC
lin#s from $taipu

Complete system brea# up4 ?N'H88 M/ load loss7

several islands remained in operation with a total
load of about (8'888 M/

Restoration of different regions varied from 68

minutes to N hours

Complete blac#out of Sao Paulo and Rio de Waneiro

areas for about N hours
1539pk TS - 101
March ((' (&&& -ra.il -lac#out
March ((' (&&& -ra.il -lac#out 0cont>d1 0cont>d1

Measures to improve system security4

Woint /or#ing =roup comprising :J:CTR,-RAS'

C:P:J and ,%S staff formed

,rgani.ed activities into K Tas# <orces

<our international e3perts as advisors

Remedial Actions4

Power system divided into * security .ones4

regions with ma"or generation and transmission
system protected or emergency controls

All ma"or :E; substations classified into high'

medium' low ris# categories based on

impact level to system security of bus faults

intrinsic reliability level of substation 0layout'

e@uipment changes1 to reduce ris# level

$mproved maintenance of substation e@uipment

and protectionBcontrol e@uipment

-etter training of operators

$mproved restoration plans