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Introduction
Renewable energy provides around 8 % of the worlds energy Wind energy is the fastest growing energy resource, followed by photovoltaics Studies suggest renewables could rise to 30-40 % share by 2050
Solar derived
RES radiant wind waves hydro biomass geothermal tidal
FUSION (SOLAR)
FISSION
Biomass
Hydro Radiant
(natural)
Introduction
Introduction
Renewable energy resources (RES) do not produce CO2 Biomass does produce CO2 when burnt but is carbon neutral Each RES still has an environmental impact (but it is minimal compared to FF)
Introduction
The potential of RES: Earth receives thousands of times more energy from the sun daily than is used in all other resources N and S Dakota, and Texas have enough wind energy potential to meet all US electricity needs A 140 x 140 mile parcel of land in Arizona covered with solar cells could meet the entire electricity needs of the US
The problem with RES: Seasonal and time dependent Storage problems Price
N. Europe 600 Btu/ft2/d 6800 kJ/m2/d 79 W/m2 Equator 2000 Btu/ft2/d 23000 kJ/m2/d 266 W/m2
Question
Show that 600 Btu/ft2/d = 79 W/m2
x 24 hr x d d
1W 3.41 Btu h
= 79 W/m2
Surface ~ 6000 C
Core 40 x 106 C
Figure 6.2: Spectrum of solar radiation reaching the earth at the top of the atmosphere and at ground level.
Reflected 3% Incoming solar energy 100% Radiated from clouds + atmosphere 60%
Reflected 3%
Direct 21%
Figure 6.3: Energy balance for the earth. The earth receives about 50% of the incident solar radiation: 21% is from direct radiation and 29% is scattered through the clouds. The energy leaving the earths surface comes from evaporation and conduction to the atmosphere (33%), and infrared radiation (noted here as terrestrial radiation). Most of the infrared radiation (113%) is absorbed by the atmosphere and reradiated back to the surface (the greenhouse effect). In order to have temperature equilibrium at the earths surface, the energy input must equal the energy output. For this figure, 50% (incident radiation) = 3% (reflected) + 33% (evaporation) + 14% (net terrestrial radiation: 113% + 6% 105%). Fig. 6-3, p. 165
Fig. 2.13
30% Albedo
51% ??
19% Absorbed
Figure 6.4: Motion of the earth around the sun, illustrating the seasons and the tilt of the earths axis. (controls latitude and season)
Figure 6.5: Insolation values for a clear day on a horizontal surface located at 40N latitude, as a function of the month and the hour of the day.
Figure 6.6: Yearly and hourly changes in the suns position in the sky for 40N. Also shown are the solar altitude (angle above the horizon) and the solar azimuth (angle from true south).
Figure 6.8: Daily clear-day insolation as a function of month and collector orientation.
Figure 6.9: Mean daily solar radiation (on an annual basis) for radiation incident on a horizontal surface, in units of Btu/ft2/d.
To calculate space heating requirements need data on average insolation and outdoor temperatures (Climate Atlas)
End
Review
Archimedes death-ray c. 212 BC National Solar Test Facility, NM - 2200 C Can melt quarter-inch-thick steel plate in 2 minutes.
Figure 6.11: Solar steam engine, Paris, 1878. Water was heated by the sun at the focus of the concentrating dish (A). The steam produced was used to run a steam engine (B) whose mechanical output ran a printing press. The water was supplied from tank (C).
Efficiency = (TH-TC)/TH = 80/373 = 0.21 = 21% Max. useful work output = 1448 kW x 0.21 = 304 kW
Figure 6.12: Solar desalination project using a cup and plastic wrap.
1767 - DeSaussure (Swiss) obtained temperatures high enough for cooking in a glass covered insulated hot box
1860s - Mouchots solar pot was able to bring 3 liters of water to a boil in 1.5 hours. 1870s - Adams solar cooking apparatus, India, 1878. Sunlight is reflected to the blackened metal container, containing the food, as shown in the insert. The metal container is enclosed in a glass jar.
1950s - Telkes (American) oven. The design features a fixed cooking pot and a moveable reflector. Heating of the pot via radiation and convection
Question
Suppose the solar radiation is 850 W/m2 and you can collect 20 % of the energy that falls on the reflecting surface of a solar hot dog cooker. If you need 240 W for the cooker, what is the minimum collector area required?
Flat-plate collector to preheat water for domestic hot water uses. The house also uses passive solar heating.
Figure 6.18: Cross-section of a flat plate collector (FPC) showing heat losses and gains. Temperatures of around 160-180 F.
Figure 6.20: Solar domestic hot water system with heat exchanger.
Question
What size flat plate collector (FPC) is needed to supply a familys domestic water needs in March in Denver, Colorado? Assume 80 gallons per day (1 gal = 8.3 lb), T = 70 F for the water, and that the collector-heat exchange system has an average efficiency of 40 %. The collector tilt angle is equal to the latitude (see Appendix D).
Heat needed, Q: Q = mc T = 80 gal x 8.3 lb/gal x 1 Btu/lb.F x 70F = 46,480 Btu/d Heat available from FPC = insolation x area x efficiency 46,480 Btu/d = 2060 Btu/d.ft2 x 0.40 x Area Area = 56 ft2
Thermosiphoning
End
Review
Figure 6.23: The Brookhaven house: an energy conservation house at the Brookhaven National Laboratory in New York State uses a greenhouse as a major passive solar feature. Fuel consumption is about one-fourth the normal usage of a house of similar size in the same climate.
Figure 6.24: Passive solar systemdirect gain. South-facing windows act as solar collectors. Moveable insulation is used to cover the windows at night to reduce heat loss. A massive concrete floor acts as a storage device and prevents overheating. The overhang blocks the summer sun.
Figure 6.25: The performance of a passive solar commercial building (the Conservation Center, Concord, New Hampshire) during three sunny but cold winter days. Heating was with direct gain (large doubleglazed, south-facing windows, with no night insulation). Thermal storage consists of a dark slate floor over a 4-inch concrete slab and phase change materials in the walls. Even though the outside temperature ranged from 20F down to 15F, no auxiliary heat was used.
Figure 6.26: Indirect gain. The concrete wall acts as a solar collector and a heat storage medium. At night the vents are closed to prevent heat loss.
Figure 6.29: Basic space heating and domestic hot water system.
Figure 6.30: Active solar space heating and domestic hot water system integrated into the faade of this house in Austria, a so-called solar combisystem.
Figure 6.31: Hot-air flat plate system. Air transfers heat from the collector either directly into the rooms or into the rock storage bin (solid line). When heat is being removed from storage (dashed line), the air flow is in the opposite direction so that as much heat as possible can be picked up from storage. Water for domestic use is preheated in the storage bin.
Pros Air system costs less to install Air doesnt freeze Cons Not as efficient Larger storage facility Costs more over time (running costs) Difficult to retrofit (size of ducts)
Figure 6.32: Calculating collector tilt angle from the horizontal for space heating.
Summary
Solar energy system consists of collector, storage and distribution systems Active systems use FPC through which fluid moves to transfer collected energy, pumps or fans move the fluid between collector and storage systems Passive systems use large south-facing windows as the collector and natural means of heat transfer, thermal mass (water, rock) within the house stores the energy Size of collector depends on solar insolation, amount of heat needed (DHW or space heating), and collector efficiency Collectors should be tilted at angle from the horizontal equal to latitude + 10