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ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

CHAPTER 9: Sustaining Biodiversity: The Ecosystem Approach

Wangari Maathai and the Green Belt Movement


Began in Kenya in 1977 Organizes poor women in rural Kenya 50,000 members protect forests Planted 20 million trees
Fruits Building materials Firewood

Similar programs in 30 African countries 2004: Nobel Peace Prize

9-1 What Are Major Threats to Forest Ecosystems?


Concept 9-1 Ecologically valuable forest ecosystems are being cut and burned at unsustainable rates in many parts of the world.

Types of Forests
Forests cover 30% of earths land surface Old-growth forests Second-growth forests Tree plantation

Fig. 9-2, p. 180

Fig. 9-3, p. 180

25 yrs

Weak trees removed

Clear cut

30 yrs Years of growth 15 yrs

Seedlings planted

5 yrs

10 yrs
Fig. 9-3, p. 180

Fig. 9-3, p. 180

Fig. 9-4, p. 181

Natural Capital
Forests
Ecological Services
Support energy flow and chemical cycling

Economic Services
Fuelwood
Lumber Pulp to make paper

Reduce soil erosion

Absorb and release water

Purify water and air

Mining

Influence local and regional climate

Livestock grazing

Store atmospheric carbon

Recreation

Provide numerous wildlife habitats

Jobs
Fig. 9-4, p. 181

Science Focus: Putting a Price Tag on Natures Ecological Services


Estimated value of earths ecological services
$33.2 trillion per year $4.7 trillion per year for forests

Need to start factoring values into land use Ecological services can be a sustainable source of ecological income

Fig. 9-A, p. 181

Harvest Methods
Step one: build roads
Erosion Invasive species Open up for human invasion

Step two: logging operations


Selective cutting Clear cutting Strip cutting

Fig. 9-5, p. 182

Cleared plots New highway for grazing Cleared plots for agriculture Old growth

Highway

Fig. 9-5, p. 182

Cleared plots New highway for grazing Cleared plots for agriculture Old growth

Highway

Stepped Art
Fig. 9-5, p. 182

Fig. 9-6, p. 182

(a) Selective cutting

Clear stream
Fig. 9-6, p. 182

Fig. 9-6, p. 182

(b) Clear-cutting

Muddy stream

Fig. 9-6, p. 182

Fig. 9-6, p. 182

(c) Strip cutting

Uncut

Cut 1 year ago Dirt road Cut 310 years ago Uncut

Clear stream

Fig. 9-6, p. 182

(a) Selective cutting (b) Clear-cutting

Clear stream Muddy stream (c) Strip cutting Uncut Cut 1 year ago Dirt road Cut 310 years ago

Uncut

Clear stream Stepped Art Fig. 9-6, p. 182

Fig. 9-7, p. 182

Forests and Fires


Surface fires
Burn undergrowth only Cool fire Ecological benefits

Crown fires
Burn the entire tree Hot fire Occur in forests with lack of surface fires

Fig. 9-8, p. 183

Fig. 9-8, p. 183

Loss of Original Forests


Deforestation 46% in 8,000 years, most since 1950 Most in tropical areas, developing countries Estimated loss of 40% intact forests within next 20 years

Fig. 9-9, p. 184

Fig. 9-10, p. 184

Good News on Forests


20002007 net total forested area stabilized or increased Most of the increase due to tree plantations Net loss of terrestrial biodiversity

Return of Forests in the United States (1)


U.S. forests
Cover ~30% of land Contain ~80% of wildlife species Supply ~67% of nations surface water

Forest cover greater now than in 1920 Secondary succession

Return of Forests in the United States (2)


Second- and third-growth forests fairly diverse More wood grown than cut 40% of forests in National Forest System Some forests transformed into tree plantations

Tropical Forests
Cover 6% of earths land area Habitat for 50% of terrestrial plants and animals
Vulnerable to extinction specialized niches

Rapid loss of 50,000170,000 km2 per year Some second-growth forests

Causes of Tropical Forest Deforestation and Degradation


Population growth and poverty Economic reasons
Logging Ranching Farming

Government subsidies Fires raise temperatures and reduce rainfall

Fig. 9-11, p. 186

Natural Capital Degradation


Major Causes of the Destruction and Degradation of Tropical Forests
Basic Causes
Not valuing ecological services Crop and timber exports Government policies Poverty Population growth
Tree plantations

Secondary Causes
Roads Fires Settler farming Cash crops Cattle ranching Logging Tree plantations

Cattle ranching

Logging

Cash crops Settler farming

Fires Roads

Fig. 9-11, p. 186

Fig. 9-12, p. 187

9-2 How Should We Manage and Sustain Forests?


Concept 9-2 We can sustain forests by emphasizing the economic value of their ecological services, removing government subsidies that hasten their destruction, protecting oldgrowth forests, harvesting trees no faster than they are replenished, and planting trees.

Fig. 9-13, p. 188

Management of Forest Fires (1)


Fire suppression in all types of forests Increased amounts of underbrush Increased probability of crown fires

Management of Forest Fires (2)


Prescribed fires Allow some fires to burn Thin vegetation from forests Thin around vulnerable homes Decrease flammability of homes

Science Focus: Certifying Sustainably Grown Timber


Forest Steward Council certification of forest operations
Environmentally sound practices Sustainable yield harvest Minimal erosion from operations Retention of dead wood for wildlife habitat

Trees and Paper


Many trees are cut for paper production Alternatives
Pulp from rice straw and agricultural residues (China) Kenaf (U.S.) Hemp

Fig. 9-14, p. 189

Ways to Reduce Tropical Deforestation


Debt-for-nature swaps Conservation concessions Gentler logging methods Encourage use of wood substitutes

Fig. 9-15, p. 190

Solutions
Sustaining Tropical Forests
Prevention
Protect the most diverse and endangered areas Educate settlers about sustainable agriculture and forestry Subsidize only sustainable forest use Protect forests with debt-for-nature swaps and conservation concessions Rehabilitate degraded areas

Restoration
Encourage regrowth through secondary succession

Certify sustainably grown timber


Reduce poverty Slow population growth Concentrate farming and ranching in already-cleared areas
Fig. 9-15, p. 190

9-3 How Should We Manage and Sustain Grasslands?


Concept 9-3 We can sustain the productivity of rangeland by controlling the number and distribution of grazing livestock and by restoring degraded grasslands.

Grasslands
Provide important ecological services Second most used and altered ecosystem by humans 42% grazed by cattle, sheep, and goats rangeland (open) and pasture (fenced) Overgrazing

Fig. 9-16, p. 191

Manage Rangelands Sustainably


Practice rotational grazing Fence out riparian zone areas Suppress invader plants
Herbicides Mechanical removal Controlled burning Short-term trampling

Fig. 9-17, p. 191

Fig. 9-17, p. 191

9-4 How Should We Manage and Sustain Parks and Nature Reserves?
Concept 9-4 We need to put more resources into sustaining existing parks and nature reserves and into protecting much more of the earths remaining undisturbed land area.

National Parks
>1,100 national parks in 120 countries Only 1% of parks in developing countries are protected
Local people invade parks to survive Logging Mining Poaching

Problems Protecting National Parks


Illegal logging Illegal mining Wildlife poaching Most parks too small to protect large animals Invasion of nonnative species

Stresses on U.S. National Parks


58 major national parks Biggest problem is popularity Damage from nonnative species Threatened islands of biodiversity Need $6 billion for overdue repairs

Nature Reserves Occupy a Fraction of Earth


12% of earths land protected Only 5% fully protected 95% reserved for human use Need for conservation
Minimum 20% of land in biodiversity reserves Protection for all biomes

Solutions for Protection


Ecological insurance policy Buffer zones around protected areas Locals to manage reserves and buffer zones United Nations: 531 biosphere reserves in 105 countries

Science Focus: Reintroducing the Gray Wolf to Yellowstone National Park


Reduced to a few hundred in lower 48 by 1973 Keystone species Restoration proposal angered ranchers, hunters, loggers 1995 - reintroduced in Yellowstone, 124 by 2008 Positive ripple effect after reintroduction

Fig. 9-B, p. 193

Case Study: Costa Rica


Superpower of biodiversity Conserved 25% of its land, 8 megareserves Government eliminated deforestation subsidies Paid landowners to maintain and restore tree coverage Boosts ecotourism

Fig. 9-18, p. 194

Nicaragua

Caribbean Sea

Costa Rica

Panama

Pacific Ocean
National parkland Buffer zone
Fig. 9-18, p. 194

Protecting Wilderness Protects Biodiversity


Wilderness Preserves biodiversity Centers for evolution

Case Study: Controversy over Wilderness Protection in the U.S.


1964 Wilderness Act Ten-fold increase from 1970 to 2008 4.6% of U.S. land protected, 75% of that in Alaska

9-5 How Can We Help to Sustain Terrestrial Biodiversity?


Concept 9-5 We can help to sustain terrestrial biodiversity by identifying and protecting severely threatened areas (biodiversity hotspots), rehabilitating damaged ecosystems (using restoration ecology), and sharing with other species much of the land we dominate (using reconciliation ecology).

Three Principles to Protect Ecosystems


1. Map and inventory the worlds terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems 2. Locate and protect the most endangered ecosystems, with a focus on biodiversity 3. Seek to restore as many degraded ecosystems as possible

Protecting Global Biodiversity Hotspots


17 megadiversity countries, mostly in tropics and subtropics
Two-thirds of biodiversity

Developing countries economically poor and biodiversity rich Protect biodiversity hotspots

Fig. 9-19, p. 196

Supplement 4, Fig. 2, p. S16

Ecological Restoration
Restoration Rehabilitation Replacement Creating artificial ecosystems

Science-based Principles for Restoration


Identify cause of degradation Stop abuse by reducing factors Reintroduce species if necessary Protect area from further degradation

Case Study: Ecological Restoration of Tropical Dry Forest in Costa Rica


One of worlds largest ecological restoration projects Restore a degraded tropical dry forest and reconnect it to adjacent forests Involve 40,000 people in the surrounding area biocultural restoration Ecotourism

Restoration Ecology
Creating new habitats to conserve species diversity in areas where people live, work, play People learn to protect local species and ecosystems Sustainable ecotourism Golden Gate Park in San Francisco

Fig. 9-20, p. 198

9-6 How Can We Help to Sustain Aquatic Biodiversity?


Concept 9-6 We can help to sustain aquatic biodiversity by establishing protected sanctuaries, managing coastal development, reducing water pollution, and preventing overfishing.

Impacts on Aquatic Ecosystems (1)


Destroyed or degraded by human activities Coastal habitats disappearing 2-10 times faster than tropical forest Rising sea levels will destroy coral reefs and some low islands Ocean floor degradation 150 times larger than area clear-cut annually

Impacts on Aquatic Ecosystems (2)


Freshwater habitat disruption
Dams Water withdrawals from rivers

Likely extinction
34% marine fish species 71% freshwater species Greater than any other group of species

Fig. 9-21, p. 199

Fig. 9-21, p. 199

Overfishing
Fishery Fishprint 157% overfishing 90% of large open-ocean fishes have disappeared since 1950

Fig. 9-22, p. 200

Case Study: Industrial Fish Harvesting Methods


Trawler fishing Purse-seine fishing Longlining Drift-net fishing

Fig. 9-23, p. 201

Fish farming in cage

Trawler fishing

Spotter airplane

Sonar Purse-seine fishing

Drift-net fishing Long line fishing Float Buoy

lines with hooks Deep sea aquaculture cage

Fish caught by gills


Fig. 9-23, p. 201

Fish farming in cage

Trawler fishing

Spotter airplane Sonar Purse-seine fishing

Drift-net fishing Long line fishing lines with hooks Deep sea aquaculture cage Float Buoy

Fish caught by gills

Stepped Art

Fig. 9-23, p. 201

Why Is Protection of Marine Biodiversity So Difficult?


Human aquatic ecological footprint expanding Not visible to most people Viewed as an inexhaustible resource Most ocean areas outside jurisdiction of a country

Solutions for Marine Ecosystems


Protect endangered and threatened species Establish protected marine sanctuaries Marine reserves work well and quickly Integrated coastal management Protect existing coastal wetlands

Fig. 9-24, p. 202

Solutions
Managing Fisheries
Fishery Regulations Set catch limits well below the maximum sustainable yield Improve monitoring and enforcement of regulations Economic Approaches Sharply reduce or eliminate fishing subsidies Charge fees for harvesting fish and shellfish from publicly owned offshore waters Certify sustainable fisheries Protect Areas Establish no-fishing areas Establish more marine protected areas Rely more on integrated coastal management Consumer Information Label sustainably harvested fish Publicize overfished and threatened species Bycatch Use wide-meshed nets to allow escape of smaller fish Use net escape devices for seabirds and sea turtles Ban throwing edible and marketable fish back into the sea Aquaculture Restrict coastal locations for fish farms Control pollution more strictly Depend more on herbivorous fish species Nonnative Invasions Kill organisms in ship ballast water Filter organisms from ship ballast water Dump ballast water far at sea and replace with deep-sea water Fig. 9-24, p. 202

Three Big Ideas from This Chapter - #1


The economic values of the important ecological services provided by the worlds ecosystems need to be included in the prices of goods and services.

Three Big Ideas from This Chapter - #2


We can sustain terrestrial biodiversity by protecting severely threatened areas, restoring damaged ecosystems, and sharing with other species much of the land we dominate.

Three Big Ideas from This Chapter - #3


We can sustain aquatic biodiversity by establishing protected sanctuaries, managing coastal development, reducing water pollution, and preventing overfishing.

Animation: Ocean Provinces

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Animation: Humans Affect Biodiversity

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Animation: Habitat Loss and Fragmentation

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Animation: Area and Distance Effects

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Animation: Succession

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Animation: Hubbard Brook Experiment

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Animation: Effects of Air Pollution in Forests

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Animation: Effects of Deforestation

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Animation: Biodiversity Hot Spots

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Animation: Resources Depletion and Degradation

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Animation: Species Diversity By Latitude

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Video: Easter Island

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Video: New Species Found

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Video: Bachelor Pad at the Zoo

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Video: Desertification in China

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Video: U.S. Forests

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Video: Marine Sanctuary

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Video: Sea Turtle Release

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