Professional Documents
Culture Documents
CARBOHYDRATES
Learning Objectives: Understand the different classes of carbohydrates Understand the digestion and absorption of carbohydrates Learn about the function of carbohydrates in the diet, and how they relate to health issues
3
CARBON, HYDROGEN, and OXYGEN in the ratio of 1 carbon atom and 1 oxygen atom for every 2 hydrogen atoms
Two Main Classes:
SIMPLE (sugars)
COMPLEX (starches and fiber)
4
SIMPLE SUGARS
MONOSACCHARIDES Glucose (or Dextrose) Galactose Fructose
SIMPLE SUGARS
DISACCHARIDES Sucrose (glucose+fructose) Lactose (glucose+galactose) Maltose (glucose+glucose)
COMPLEX CARBOHYDRATES
POLYSACCHARIDES Starch - long chains of glucose molecules in straight (AMYLOSE) or branching (AMYLOPECTIN) arrangement
10
COMPLEX CARBOHYDRATES
POLYSACCHARIDES Glycogen animal form of starch (highly branched and composed of multiple glucose molecules)
11
12
13
COMPLEX CARBOHYDRATES
FIBER resembles starch, but cannot
be digested TYPES: Cellulose Hemicellulose Pectin Gums and Mucilages Lignans (is fiber, but not a polysaccharide)
14
15
16
18
Digestion
Digestion The process of changing
Mouth->esophagus->stomach->small
19
Digestion :
A family of a glycosidases that degrade
Introduction:
of
our
foods
are
In the mouth
the salivary enzyme amylase begins to hydrolyze starch into short polysaccharides and maltose.
In the stomach
acid continues to hydrolyze starch while fiber delays gastric emptying and provides a feeling of fullness (satiety).
22
Produced by salivary glands. Its optimum pH is 6.7. It is activated by chloride ions (Cl-). It acts on cooked starch and glycogen breaking 1-4 bonds, converting them into maltose [a disaccharide containing two glucose molecules attached by 1-4 linkage].
24
enzymes:
The final digestive processes occur at the small intestine and include the action of several disaccharidases. These enzymes are secreted through and remain associated with the brush border of the intestinal mucosal cells. Digestion of carbohydrate by the pancreatic - amylase in the small intestine.
25
1. Lactase (-galactosidase) which hydrolyses lactose into two molecules of glucose and galactose: Lactase Lactose ---------------- Glucose + Galactose 2. Maltase ( -glucosidase), which hydrolyses maltose into two molecules of glucose: Maltase Maltose ------------- Glucose + Glucose 3. Sucrase (-fructofuranosidase), which hydrolyses sucrose into two molecules of glucose and fructose: Sucrase Sucrose -------------- Glucose + Fructose 4. - dextrinase (oligo-1,6 glucosidase or isomaltase) which hydrolyze (1 ,6) linkage of isomaltose. Dextrinase Isomaltose --------- Glucose + Glucose
26
Carbohydrate Absorption
Primarily takes place in the small
intestine Glucose and galactose are absorbed by active transport. Fructose is absorbed by facilitated diffusion.
27
Carbohydrate Absorption
For example, galactose and glucose are
transported into the mucosal cells by an active, energy-requiring process that requires a concurrent uptake of sodium ions
The transport protein is the sodium-
Carbohydrate Absorption
The duodenum and upper jejunum absorb the
absorption.
29
the intestinal mucosal cell into the portal circulation by yet another transporter, GLUT-2.
30
Carbohydrate Absorption
A.
The end products of carbohydrate digestion are monosaccharide: glucose, galactose and fructose.
glucose.
31
Absorption of Monosaccharide
B.
32
Transport Proteins
. Transport proteins = Integral membrane proteins that transport specific molecules or ions across biological membranes.
Or Carrier Proteins :
Mobile & Specific for Sugars
33
sugar should have: 1: Hexose ring. 2. OH group at position 2 on the right side. (Both of which are present in D-glucose and galactose.) 3. A methyl or a substituted methyl group i.e ., one or more carbon atom should be present at carbon 5.
at position 2 is absorbed more slowly than glucose and galactose by passive diffusion (slow process).
34
It transports glucose to inside the cell using energy. The energy is derived from sodium-potassium pump. The transporter has 2 separate sites, one for sodium and the other for glucose. It transports them from the intestinal lumen across cell membrane to the cytoplasm. Both glucose and sodium are released into the cytoplasm allowing the carrier to return for more transport of glucose and sodium. 35
Mechanisms of absorption:
b)
The sodium is transported from high to low concentration (with concentration gradient) and at the same time causes the carrier to transport glucose against its concentration gradient. The Na+ is expelled outside the cell by sodium pump. Which needs ATP as a source of energy. The reaction is catalyzed by an enzyme called "Adenosine triphosphatase (ATPase)". Active transport is much more faster than passive transport. Is an example of Co-Transport system
36
Mechanisms of absorption:
c) Insulin increases the number of glucose
transporters in tissues containing insulin receptors e.g. muscles and adipose tissue.
2. Inhibitors of
active transport:
a) Ouabin (cardiac glycoside): Inhibits adenosine triphosphatase (ATPase) necessary for hydrolysis of ATP that produces energy of sodium pump.
b) Phlorhizin; Inhibits the binding of sodium in
38
Amount of carrier proteins Rapidity of solute-carrier interaction Rapidity of conversion of ping pong state
39
mechanism.
Glucose and galactose can also use the same
transporter favorable.
if
the
concentration
gradient
is
40
contact Hormones : Thyroid hormones (increases ) Adrenal cortical hormone (decreases ) Anterior Pituitary (via thyroids ) Insulin ( no direct effect ) Vitamins B-complex ( thiamine , Pyridoxine and pantothenic acid ) Inherited Enzyme Deficiencies (sucrase & Lactase)
41
Small intestine
Portal for transport of virtually all nutrients Water and electrolyte balance Enzymes associated with intestinal surface membranes i. Sucrase ii. a dextrinase iii.Glucoamylase (maltase) iv.Lactase v. peptidases
42
Carbohydrate absorption
Hexose Transporters
apical
basolateral
43
Carbohydrate absorption
Monosaccharide are still too large for passive diffusion across
euglycemia hypoglycemia after CHO meal (i.e, below Tmax) uncontrolled diabetes
2.) Glucose is polar, therefore is hydrophilic Facilitated diffusion occurs via 5 glucose transporters GLUT 1 GLUT 5
45
GLUT 1, 2, 3 & 5 (liver, neurons, RBC, kidney) 4.) Regulated glucose uptake Insulin on GLUT 4 (muscle, adipose)
46
47
49
Adipose and liver Glucose acetyl CoA Glucose to glycerol for triglyceride synthesis Liver releases glucose for other tissues
50
52
Insulin
A chain 21AA
S S
B chain 30AA
S
Insulin Receptor
S S
Fully active Tyrosine Kinase now can phosphorylate (activate/deactivate) intracellular enzymes Activates PDE cAMP activates PP-1 / dephosphorylates GS and PKA EPI inhibits insulin receptor and release
54
A Subunits
55
58