INTRODUCTION TO PHOTOGRAMMETRY

SUDIP SHRESTHA

Aerial Photogrammetry
Photography - The art or process of producing images on a sensitized surface by the action of light or other radiant energy Photogrammetry - The science or art of obtaining reliable measurements by means of photography (aero-plane at high altitude) The art, science, and technology of obtaining reliable information about physical objects, and the environment, through processes of recording, measuring, and interpreting images and patterns of electromagnetic radiant energy and other phenomena. (Manual of Photogrammetry, 4th Ed., ASPRS, 1980) Photogrammetry is the science of obtaining reliable information about the properties of surfaces and objects without physical contact with the objects, and of measuring and interpreting this information. The name Photogrammetry" is derived from the three Greek words phos or photo which means light, gramma which means letter or something drawn, and metrein, the noun of measure

Principles of Aerial photography

Sun is the source of energy (EMR) They are sensitive to light in visible wavelength & near infrared region Photosensitive film acts as a sensor to record the images Variations in gray tones of images indicates different amount of energy reflected from the objects as recorded on the film

History

It was invented by Louis Daguerre announcing his direct photographic process in 1839,France In 1840, Argo, Director of the Paris Observatory advocated the use of photography for topographic surveying The first known AP was taken using a balloon at a height of 80m over Bievre ,France in 1858 by a Parisian photographer(wet plate camera) With the flourish of balloon photography James Wallace Black took earliest existing AP using balloon at height of 365m Boston in1860 in U.S. The first AP taken from a kite is credited to English meteorologist, E. D. in about 1882 With the development of kite photography in the early 1900, G.R.Lawrence photographed San Francisco shortly after the great earthquake and fire at 600m height using panoramic camera During the first world war (1914-1918) aerial photography from, aircraft received more attention in the interest of military intelligence for remote acquisition of military information (as an operational military recon naissance tool) Between World War I and II, many non-military applications appeared

Geometry of Photographs
Orthographic projection each point projected normal to reference plane. Perspective projection each point projected through a central point, due to points being at different elevations, they look 3 dimensional.

Geometry of Photographs

Types of photographs
Aerial Terrestrial Oblique Vertical
Low oblique (does not include horizon)

Truly Vertical
High oblique (includes horizon)

Tilted
(1deg< angle < 3deg)

Chapter 1 1/28/2014 Virtual Environment Lab, UTA 7

Types of Photogrammetry
Aerial Photogrammetry series of photographs of an area of terrain in sequence using a precision camera. Terrestrial Photogrammetry photos taken from a fixed and usually known position on or near the ground with the camera axis horizontal or nearly so. Close range Photogrammetry camera close to object being observed. Most often used when direct measurement is impractical.

Angular Coverage
Narrow angle : angle of coverage less than 60 deg Normal angle : angle of coverage of 60 -90deg Wide angle : angle of coverage of 90-120 deg Super-wide : angle of coverage of more 120 deg

Tilt of camera axis

Vertical Photograph: An aerial photo made with the camera axis or optical axis coinciding with the direction of gravity. Truly vertical AP is rarely obtainable because of unavoidable rotation or tilts caused by angular altitude of aircraft at the instant of exposure These unavoidable tilt cause slight (1-3o) unintentional inclination of the camera optical axis. Tilted photograph: An aerial photograph made with the camera axis unintentionally tilt from the vertical by a small amount, usually less than3o An aerial made with the camera axis unintentionally tilt from photograph the vertical by a small amount, usually less than3o Virtually all photographs are tilted Oblique Photograph: An aerial photograph taken with the camera axis directed intentionally between the horizontal and the vertical.

Vertical Aerial Photography

Most are vertical aerial photography

Low-oblique Aerial Photography

High-oblique Aerial Photography

High-oblique photograph of the grand Coulee Dam in Washington in 1940

PHOTO OVERLAP
Aerial photo projects for all mapping and most image analyses require that a series of exposures be made along each of the multiple ight lines. To guarantee stereoscopic coverage throughout the site, the photographs must overlap in two directions: in the line of ight and between adjacent ights. End lap End lap, also known as forward overlap, is the common image area on consecutive photographs along a ight strip. This overlapping portion of two successive aerial photos, which creates the three-dimensional effect necessary for mapping, is known as a stereo model or more commonly as a model Normally, end lap ranges between 55 and 65% of the length of a photo, with a nominal average of 60% for most mapping projects. End lap gain, the distance between the centers of consecutive photographs along a ight path,.

PHOTO OVERLAP

PHOTO OVERLAP
Side lap
Side lap, sometimes called side overlap, encompasses the overlapping areas of photographs between adjacent ight lines. It is designed so that there are no gaps in the three dimensional coverage of a multiline project Usually, sidelap ranges between 20 and 40% of the width of a photo, with a nominal average of 30%. From the foregoing discussion of overlap, it is evident that consecutive photos in a ight strip overlap. When focusing each eye on a particular image feature that was viewed by the camera from two different aspects, the mind of the observer is convinced that it is seeing a lone object with three dimensions. Put simply, the three-dimensional effect is an optical illusion. This phenomenon of observing a feature from different positions is known as the parallax effect. Although used to describe other facets of Photogrammetry, parallax is dene as a change in the position of the observer. This situation allows a viewer, when using appropriate stereoscopic instruments, to observe a pair of two-dimensional photos and see a single three-dimensional image.

STEREOMODEL

PHOTO OVERLAP

PHOTO OVERLAP
Photogrammetrists envision a model as the neat area that a single stereo pair contributes to the total project. This allows for the endlap and sidelap with surrounding photos.

Stereoscopic Coverage
The total area of a project contained within neat models is commonly called stereo coverage, or more precisely stereoscopic coverage. The area in which mapping can be performed using photogrammetric methods is limited to the area of stereo coverage. Features existing on only one photograph cannot be mapped. This should be taken into account when planning a photography mission.

Photo Scale
The scale of the photography employed in producing mapping is a factor in determining the accuracy that can be achieved from the mapping process. It is important to know what accuracy will be required, and thus what photo scales will be acceptable before proceeding with the flight planning process. The scale of a photograph is a function of the height above terrain at which the photograph was taken ( h ) and the focal length of the camera used (f ). The focal length is the distance from the optical center of the lens to the plane of focus of the light passing through the lens. The focal length of cameras most often used in topographic mapping is 6 inches. Scale = f / h The scale of photography is generally written in the form of a unit less ratio.

Photo Scale

Image size/ real world size :

S = ab/AB

Focal length/ altitude above ground:

S=f/H

Photo Scale

In real world

In the image

1 = 12 S = 0.012/ (6 x 12) = 1/6000 S = f / (H-h) Max scale, minimum scale, and average or nominal scale

Scale of a Vertical Photo

S= f H f or H-h

f = focal length 6 or 152.4 mm is common H = height of plane above ground h = height (elevation) of ground H = height of place above datum [altimeter reading (2% error)]

Relief Displacement
The surface of the earth is not smooth and flat. As a consequence, there is a natural phenomenon that disrupts true orthogonality of photo image features. In this respect, an orthogonal image is one in which the displacement has been removed, and all of the image features lie in their true horizontal relationship Relief displacement is the apparent leaning of objects within a photograph away from the photo center or principle point. Vertical aerial photographs are good examples of point projections where only the center image is correctly represented in its true position. From the center point outward, all objects are warped (radially displaced) away from the center point. Also, the displacement becomes greater the farther it is away from the center. Examples of relief displacement can be most easily understood when viewing manmade objects. The graphic below depicts how a tall factory smokestack would appear in an aerial photograph and how it would be represented on an orthographic map projection

Relief Displacement
Causes of Displacement Camera tilt, earth curvature, and terrain relief all contribute to shifting photo image features away from true geographic location. Camera tilt is greatly reduced or perhaps eliminated by gyroscopically-controlled cameras. Earth curvature is of little consequence on large-scale photography. The relatively small amount of lateral distance covered by the exposure frame introduces only a minimal amount of curvature, if any. Topographic relief can have a great effect on displacing image features. The amount of image displacement increases on high-degree slopes. Feature displacement also increases radially away from the photo center. Effects of Displacement An aerial photograph is a three-dimensional scene transferred onto a two-dimen-sional plane. Hence, the photographic process literally squashes a three-dimensional feature onto a plane that lacks a vertical dimension, and image features above or below mean ground level are displaced from their true horizontal location. Just as images of fast-rising features are displaced, so are the changes in ground elevations, though not as visibly apparent in the photographs. Figure 6.10 illustrates relief displacement on a straight utility clearing that crosses rolling hills. The clearing is identied as the wavy open strip running diagonally through the woods on the left side of the photo. Even though the indicated utility clearing follows a straight course, relief displacement due to terrain undulations causes this feature to waver.

Relief Displacement
Relief Displacement exists because photos are a perspective projection. Use this to determine the height of object: h= d (H) r

h = height of object d = radial distance to top of object-radial distance to bottom of object. r = radial distance to top of object.

Relief Displacement

Planning and Executing Photo Project

Basic Overall Process: Photography obtain suitable photos. Control obtain sufficient control through field surveys and/or extension by photographic methods. Map Compilation plotting of planimetric and/or topographic features. Map Completion map editing and special field surveys. Final Map Drafting

Orientation in Photogrammetry
Inner orientation Relative orientation Absolute orientation

Advantage of Photogrammetry

The following are factors to consider when deciding to use Photogrammetry Photogrammetry is a cost efficient surveying method for mapping large areas. Photogrammetry may be safer than other surveying methods. It is safer to take photographs of a dangerous area than to place surveyors in harms way. Photogrammetry provides the ability to map areas inaccessible to field crews. Photogrammetry creates a photographic record of the project site (snapshot in time). Photogrammetry produces useful digital products such as orthophotos. Photogrammetry produces electronic terrain models. Photos provide a permanent record of the existing terrain conditions at the time the photograph was taken.

Disadvantage of Photogrammetry

Photogrammetry is not the solution for all mapping situations. Photogrammetry may not be appropriate under the following conditions: The accuracy required for a mapping project is greater than the accuracy achievable with

photogrammetric methods. The scope of the work is not large enough to justify the costs of surveying the photo control and performing the subsequent photogrammetric processes. However, when unsafe field conditions are encountered, safety shall hold a higher weight than cost in the decision process. Seasonal conditions, including weather, vegetation, and shadows can affect both the taking of photographs and the resulting measurement quality. If the ground is not visible in the photograph it can not be mapped. Elevations are less accurate (when compared to conventional ground survey methods using appropriate elevation procedures). Identification of planimetric features can be difficult or impossible (e.g. type of curb and gutter, size of culverts, type of fences, information on signs). Underground utilities can not be located, measured or identified. Building overhangs will result in incorrect building measurements and ground elevations. Difficult to photographed in boundary area of country, while there is conflict with neighbor. Only Professionals can interpret Most of objects are hidden