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Electrical heating

Learning Outcome 1:

Heat and temperature, heat capacity and heat transfer.

Learning Outcome 2:
Learning Outcome 3:

Methods used to control heating in various situations


The processes and techniques used for water, space and industrial process heating. AS3000:2007 Wiring Rules requirements. Possible causes of malfunction in electric heating equipment and the tests required to diagnose faults

Learning Outcome 4: Learning Outcome 5:

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Heat and temperature

What is the difference between Heat and Temperature?

Heat is a measure of the total kinetic energy of the molecules or atoms in a body. The quantity of energy stored is measured in Joules

Symbol J

Temperature is a measure of the degree of movement of the random oscillations of the molecules.

Alternatively, it can be defined as a measure of the hotness of a body.


No movement = No temperature. (ie. Absolute Zero)

If a body is not storing heat its temperature is absolute zero.

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Electrical Heating
Transfer of Heat

Heat is transferred from a hotter region to a colder region

Electrical Heating
Heat is Energy
Energy (W)in Joules (J)
Power in Watts (W)

Time in seconds (s)

Electrical Heating
Temperature Scales
The common temperature scale is CELSIUS Water boils at 100oC Some countries use the FAHRENHEIT scale
Water boils at 212oF

Ice melts at 0oC

Ice melts at 32oF

Electrical Heating
Temperature Scales
The temperature scale used in science and engineering is the absolute KELVIN scale (K)
One Kelvin degree is equal to One Celsius degree
Water boils at 373K

Zero Kelvin (0K) is Absolute Zero and is equivalent to

Zero Kelvin is Absolute Zero NO heat content; NO molecular motion.

-273oC
Ice melts at 273K

The degree symbol o is NOT used with the Kelvin scale

Electrical Heating
Temperature Scales
To convert Fahrenheit to Celsius:

Electrical Heating
Temperature Scales
To convert Celsius to Fahrenheit:

Electrical Heating
Temperature Scales
To convert Kelvin to Celsius:

Electrical Heating
Temperature Scales
To convert Celsius to Kelvin:

Kelvin
0K 273.15K 373.15K Note 100 absolute zero ice point water steam point of water degrees between ice and steam

Celsius
-273.15OC 0 C 100 C Note 100 absolute zero ice point water steam point of water degrees between ice and steam

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The ability of a substance to store heat.


If equal masses absorb equal amounts of show a different temperature increase.

thermal energy (heat), different substances

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Electrical Heating
Specific Heat Capacity
Specific Heat Capacity is the amount of heat energy required to change the temperature of one kilogram of a material through ONE KELVIN (or degree C)

Absolute Heat Energy (J)

Specific Heat Capacity(J/kg.K)

Mass (kg) Temperature change (K or oC)

Solids ( J/kgC ) Iron 450 Copper 390 Aluminium 900 Gold 130 Glass 840 NaCl 880 Ice 2090 Wood 1680 Sand 820 Diamond 500 Concrete 880

Liquids ( J/kgC ) Water 4180 Methanol 2550 Ethanol 2480 Antifreeze 2380 Benzene 1720 Human body 3470

Gases ( J/kgC ) Steam 1970 Oxygen 910 Nitrogen 1040 Dry air ~1000 Hydrogen 14300 Freon11 870

These are just examples only

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Q = m x c x (t 2-t 1)

Where:
Q = Quantity of heat m = mass in kg c = specific heat capacity (tables) t 2 t 1 change in temperature

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Heat moves from high to low temperature levels. The rate of heat transfer is partly dependant on the difference between the two temperature levels.
3 types of heat transfer

Conduction Convection Radiation


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Electrical Heating
Heat Transfer - CONDUCTION

Electrical Heating
Heat Transfer - CONVECTION

Electrical Heating
Heat Transfer - RADIATION

Thermal conductivity is the materials ability to transmit heat by conduction. Depends on four factors:

Type of material Length of transfer path Cross-sectional area of path Temperature difference
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The frame of a motor is designed to conduct the heat from the windings (centre of motor) to the surface and then dissipate the heat to the environment.
The frame of a Hot Water Service is designed to ensure the heat is trapped in the centre of the Service.

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Two

Open Loop Control No actual control of the amount of heat

basic types:

Closed Loop Control Control over the amount of heat (temperature)


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Examples:

On-Off control of a switch Set the car throttle in one position for a trip Simmerstat on stoves to control the hotplates O/H fan speed control Fixed position of valve regardless of changes to flow requirements Garden sprinkler Electric toaster Microwave oven: Power setting. Time setting Electric Blanket

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Three heat switching


Example:
Most old Urns Electric blankets (almost all) Some stoves in caravans

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Electrical Heating
Heat Control 3-Heat Switch

Electrical Heating
Heat Control 3-Heat Switch

Electrical Heating
Heat Control Simmerstat
The SIMMERSTAT is an OPEN CYCLE temperature control commonly used with stoves.

Active

Contacts

Compensating Bimetal Pivot Operating Bimetal Heating Load Internal heater element

Neutral

Heater element + bi-metal strip

Main Contacts

Magnet (to give snap action switch) Adjustment

Aux. Switch

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Examples: Oven thermostat and element Toilet cistern water level control Car cruise control Almost all industrial processes HWS Electric Iron Electric frypan

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Electrical Heating
Heat Control Open/Closed Cycle

Electrical Heating
Heat Control Open/Closed Cycle

Electrical Heating
Heat Control Open/Closed Cycle

Electrical Heating
Heat Control Thermostats
A THERMOSTAT is a Closed-Cycle Control that:
SENSES the output temperature COMPARES it with the pre-set value

VARIES or SWITCHES the input energy

Four types are typically found in appliances. The first three of these are totally mechanically controlled:
1. Bimetal strip. When two metals with different coefficients of thermal expansion are sandwiched together, the strip will tend to bend as the temperature changes. In a thermostat, the bimetal strip operates a set of contacts which make or break a circuit depending on temperature. In some cases the strip's shape or an additional mechanism adds 'hysteresis' to the thermostat's characteristics

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2. Bimetal disk. This is similar to (1) but the bimetal element is in the shape of a concave disk (like the clicker play toy). These are not common in adjustable thermostats with brad spans, but are the usual element in an over-temperature switch.

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Electrical Heating
Heat Control Thermostats
Bimetal Disc Thermostat

This thermostat has contacts operated by a cupped bimetal disc.

At a pre-set temperature, the disc snaps the contacts open. When the disc cools to a preset value, disc returns and the contacts snap closed.

Electric Iron Thermostat

Bimetal Strip MIMS type element

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Thermal Cut-out (with manual reset)

Thermostat

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Two Hot Water System Thermostats

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3. Fluid operated bellows. These are not that common in small appliances but often found in refrigerators, air conditioners, stoves, and so forth. An expanding fluid (alcohol is common) operates a bellows which is coupled to a set of movable contacts. As with (1) and (2), hysteresis may be provided by a spring mechanism.

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Electrical Heating
Heat Control Thermostats
Capillary Tube Thermostat

Bellows or Diaphragm

Capillary Tube

Bellows Rod moves to operate contacts

Bulb with volatile liquid

Electrical Heating
Heat Control Thermostats
Bi-Metal Thermostat Support Stem Brazed to Stem

Invar Rod

Brazed to Rod Helical Bi-Metal Strip

Mounting Flange & Screw Thread

Bimetal Coil thermostat

Mercury Switch

Bimetal Coil

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Electrical Heating
Heat Control Thermostats
Expanding Tube Thermostat Retaining Clips Brass Tube Tube Brazed to Rod

Tube Expands/Contracts

Rod Free End Moves to operate contacts

Tube Brazed to Support

Invar Rod

Expanding tube thermostat


Operating rod

Rod is welded to the end of the tube

The operating rod has a different expansion rate than the tube enclosing it. Electrical Contacts

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Bi-metal helix

Bulb type

Expanding rod type

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4. Electronic thermostats. These typically use a temperature controlled resistance (thermistor) driving some kind of amplifier or logic circuit which then controls a thyristor or contactor.

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Note that these terms can only apply to a closed loop system such as thermostats. If there is no feedback, the system cannot have:
Hysteresis Differential Sensitivity Accuracy

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Sensitivity

Is a measure of the change of output to a change of input.


A more sensitive thermostat will have a smaller differential. It is a measure of how closely a unit can maintain a given temperature. It is better applied to temperature measuring devices that give an analogue output. A more sensitive device gives a greater change of output to the change of input (temperature).
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Thermocouples Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs) Diodes and semiconductor ICs Gas expansion system Mercury expansion system Coiled bimetal strip (see P&N) Radiation Pyrometers

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Instantaneous Mains pressure - Storage Mains pressure - Heat exchanger Low pressure storage Solar Heat Pump HWS

L/O 3.1

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Instantaneous or tankless water heaters are small cabinets that heat water on demand or instantly as it passes through the heater. They contain no significant water storage, possessing only up to a 6 litre operating holding. These water heaters only use energy when the hot water outlet is turned on and shut down immediately when the outlet is turned off.

Mains Pressure HWS: direct heated


Installed at ground level. Requires a pressure relief system. Requires an expansion control valve. New houses require a tempering valve for warm water to the bathroom.

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Mains Pressure HWS -Direct heated Hot water Out

Insulation

Note: The tank operates at mains pressure.

Cold water In

Water Heater + thermostat

L/O 3.1

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If both have the same colour tags, then this wont be a problem

1400kPa

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Bottom Cold Water Expansion Valve must be 200kPa lower than the top pressure relief valve.

1200kPa

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Hot water (73C max.) to Pressure laundry and kitchen. Relief Warm water (50C max.) to Valve bathroom. If major renovations are Tempering carried out in the bathroom, Valve then a tempering valve must be added. The house owners can sign a form saying they dont want it Cold Water (as only adults will be using Expansion it), and the plumber will not Valve be responsible for any consequences.

Hot Water Outlet (73C max.) Warm Water Outlet (50C max.)

Cold Water Inlet Cold Water Tap

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Heat exchange Storage HWS

Small Storage HWS designed for under sink operation

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Must be mounted above taps.


Low pressure hot water only. More to go wrong.
If float valve sticks

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Low Pressure HWS Toilet cistern type water level sensor

Element and electrical connection

Cold Water In Tank fills from Bottom Gravity Feed

Hot Water Out

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Faults:
Element goes open circuit.
Replace element.

Thermostat either stays on, or stays off


Replace thermostat

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Solar
Still requires booster element 8-10 year pay back period May require extra roof support. Does the roof face the required direction?

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In solar systems cold water travels through the roof-mounted solar collector where the water absorbs heat from the sun. Water heating using solar energy occurs during the day and the solar involvement varies significantly throughout the year depending on the climatic conditions. The apparatus of solar heaters includes the solar collector, insulated storage tank and, if required, pump and control valves.

Flat-plate collectors are the most common collector for domestic water heating.
A typical flat-plate collector is an insulated rectangular-type metal box with a transparent cover (similar to a greenhouse) and a black absorber plate.

The evacuated-tube collectors consist of rows of parallel transparent double glass tubes, each containing an electromagnetic energy absorber and covered with a solar-sensitive coating.
Sunlight enters the tube, strikes the absorber and heats the water flowing through the collector.

Calorifiers are cylinders with an internal coil which allows the use of any type of boiler for hot water production. The calorifier can be either mains-pressure or lowpressure hot water storage systems. A significant amount of heat energy can be transferred to the calorifier, allowing a large production of hot water from a relatively small cylinder.

Heat pump HWS


More expensive than conventional HWS Smaller than Solar HWS Can operate with or without sunshine Operates as a split system

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A heat pump water heater absorbs heat from the surrounding environment and pumps the acquired heat energy into a hot water storage tank.
The heat pump serves as a heater by absorbing heat from the surrounding environment and pumping it into a closed-system heat-exchanger water storage tank.

The compressor compresses cool refrigeration gas, causing it to become hot, highpressure refrigeration gas
This hot gas runs through a set of coils so it can dissipate its heat, and it condenses into a liquid. The refrigeration liquid runs through an expansion valve, and in the process it evaporates to become cold, low- pressure refrigeration gas This cold gas runs through a set of coils that allow the gas to absorb heat and cool down the air inside the building A solar heat pump works on the same principle only in reverse i.e the coils carrying the hot gas are used to heat the water.
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If the water heaters thermostat, which controls the resistive heating element, malfunctions the pressurised water in the tank could continue to heat and superheat (beyond 100 C).

This will cause two problems:

First, since water expands when heated, the water pressure in the tank will increase as the water is superheated. If the pressure exceeds the vessels maximum pressure threshold the tank could rupture or even explode.

Secondly, the release of superheated water (water heated above 100 C up to its critical temperature of 374 C without boiling) causes the water to burst into steam (1 litre of water can produce about 3 litres of steam), causing a sudden increase in volume and release of energy.
Lowering the pressure of water lowers the boiling point. There is less pressure above the water to overcome. The superheated vapour plume expands until its pressure equals that of the surrounding atmosphere.

Types:
High Temperature radiators Low temperature panels and convection units Thermal storage systems Heat pumps (reverse cycle air conditioners)

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Types:
Low temperature panels and convection units
Under-carpet / under concrete heaters (MIMS in concrete slab)
Can be operated using cheaper power at night

Blower heaters Oil filled floor heaters

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Stoves (ranges):
Four types of cooktops:
Coiled element Solid element Ceramic cooktop Induction cooktop

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Coiled Element

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Solid element

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Ceramic cooktop

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Stoves:
Wiring:
Half the elements with their controls Other half of the elements with their controls

Connection Box

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Microwave ovens bombard food with electromagnetic radiation at 2.45GHz Water absorbs the energy. The molecules vibrate and get hot. The oven will dissipate the same energy in the cavity no-matter what. (eg. 800W) Small quantities will cook faster. Large quantities cook slower. Metal reflects the microwaves If a microwave oven is left empty, the microwaves will reflect back into the magnetron and heat it up. This destroys the magnetron.
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There are four (4) process heating methods available for converting the electric energy to heat energy.
1. 2. 3. 4. Resistance Infra-red Induction Dielectric

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Resistance process heating


All the heat generated by an element is transferred by either convection or conduction The elements used may be either wire, strip or solid rods. Typical applications include; duct heaters, furnaces, refrigerators, space heaters, greenhouse heating and trace heating. In all cases their temperatures are controlled by thermostats

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Infra Red heating:


Spray painting booths for cars

Induction Heating:
For directly heating small steel parts. Similar to locking the rotor of a motor it gets hot. Usually the work piece has currents induced in it directly. Frequencies between 50Hz and 5MHz used.

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Dielectric Heating:
Used to heat non-conducting material. If an insulator is placed between two electrode plates, and AC is applied to the plates, the molecules are agitated and heat up. Used in plywood manufacture Used to dry breakfast cereal and dog biscuits

Electric Arc
Used in the steel industry up to 150 tonnes Used in glass furnaces. eg. Bradford pink batts. Arc welders fall in this category.
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Demonstrate knowledge of the possible causes of malfunction in electric heating equipment and skills the testing and fault finding.
5.1
5.2

List the possible causes of faults in a malfunctioning electric heating device/circuit. Conduct tests and locate a fault in a malfunctioning electric heating device/circuit.

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Open circuits -physical breaks in the element -breaks in wiring


Short circuits -resistance reduced to 0 Partial open circuits -loose connections etc

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Element Testing
To test an element for continuity the appliance should first be disconnected from power. After the appliance has been made safe to work on, the element needs to be isolated from the rest of the electrical circuit by removing at least one of the connecting wires. Once that is done, an ohm meter or continuity tester's leads can be held against each terminal of the element.

The exact resistance of an element is often not important as it will not usually change over its life span except to become totally open (show infinite resistance) when defective or becomes shorted to ground (see below). In case you're curious, a large cooktop surface burner is usually in the area of 27 ohms, a small 45 ohms. A griller element's resistance may be in the area of 20 to 40 ohms depending on its wattage.

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Short to Earth
An element can also become partially shorted to ground. While this may not be enough to create a dead short and cause the element to fail outright, it can create a shock hazard. To test an element for a short to ground, an ohmmeter should be set on its highest ohm scale (1K or 10K) and tested from one of the element's terminals to the element's metal sheath. It may be necessary to rub the outer element surface with the meter probe to make a good contact. If anything other than infinite resistance is shown, replace the element.

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Heat damaged
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