By

P. KAVITHA(13PGPE09)

REMOTE SENSING

Remote sensing is the science and art of acquiring information (spectral, spatial, and temporal) about material objects, area, or phenomenon, without coming into physical contact with the objects, or area, or phenomenon under investigation. Without direct contact, some means of transferring information through space must be utilised. In remote sensing, information transfer is accomplished by use of electromagnetic radiation(EMR). EMR is a form of energy that reveals its presence by the observable effects its produces when it strikes the matter.

Origin OF REMOTE SENSING

Remote sensing is the collection and measurement of information by a device not in physical contact what it is observing. Common remote sensing devices include:
Cameras Binoculars Microscopes

Eye

Satellites

Video cameras

Telescope

1888, REMOTE SENSING PIONEERS

HOW SENSORS WORK

Sensors

collect and store data about the spectral reflectance of natural features and objects, both of which reflect radiation. This radiation can be quantified on an electromagnetic spectrum. The electromagnetic spectrum is a continuum of electromagnetic energy arranged according to its frequency and wavelength. As the electromagnetic waves are radiated through space, their energy interacts with matter and one of three reactions occurs.

HOW SENSORS WORK

The

radiation will either be: a) reflected off the object b) absorbed by the object c) transmitted through the object The total amount of radiation that strikes an object is referred to as the incident radiation and is equal to:
Incident radiation = reflected radiation + absorbed radiation + transmitted radiation

CLASSIFICATION
The features on the Earth surface for this purpose may be broadly classified as:

Vegetation Soil, rocks, minerals Water, ocean snow and man-made features.

RADIATION USED
Since the interaction mechanism in the various regions of the electromagnetic spectrum is different. It is convenient to deal with them in the three broad region:
Reflective optical infrared region (ROIR, 0.4-3m) Thermal infrared region (TIR, 8-14 m) Microwave region (1-30cm)

WATER BODIES AND OCEANS

The

optical property of a water body primarily depends on the absorption and scattering by the suspected matter. Thus, radiation emanating from the water bodies depends on dissolved and suspended matter. Hence, a study of the spectral characteristics of the radiation upwelling from the water body can be used to study the constituents present in the water.

CLASSIFICATION OF OCEANS
In

oceans, the substances responsible for ocean colour can be broadly classified as:

Phytoplankton

Non-chlorophyllous particles of biological or

terrestrial origin and Dissolved organic matter, known as yellow substance.

PHYTOPLANKTON
Phytoplankton

are microscopic plants, which occupy the first link in almost all aquatic and marine food chains.

PHYTOPLANKTON
They

are responsible for converting solar energy and dissolved carbon and nitrogen into organic biomass which is then available to higher tropic level organisms. Phytoplankton contains photosynthetically active pigment, chlorophyll-a, which strongly absorbs near 0.443m (blue), while the chl-a absorption is much weaker in green region(0.52 and 0.55m).

 Thus

phytoplankton content increases, backscattering increases in the green region but the blue region is absorbed rapidly. Hence, water rich in phytoplankton(chlorophyll) appears green, while water that is poor in phytoplankton will appear deep blue in sunlight. As the turbidity increases, the upward radiance peak shifts towards red and that is why one sees muddy water as brown.

CLASSIFIED OCEAN WATER

CASE 1

CASE 2:
CASE 2: Water may or may not contain the above component, but should contain at least one of the following components. Suspended sediments from the bottom along the coast line and in shallow waters. Particles brought in by rivers and glacial run-off (yellow substance). Dissolved organic matter brought in by land drainage(yellow substance). Anthropogenic influx of particulate and dissolved matter.

CASE 1: water are those on which phytoplankton and their derivative products play a dominant role on determining the optical properties of the ocean. CASE 2: water are those in which inorganic/organic sediments make dominant contribution.

UPWELLING RADIATION FROM WATER The interaction of suns radiation in the OIR region with water giving rise to the upwelling radiation which is sensed by remote sensors. The suns radiation reaching the water surface undergoes reflection and the remainder gets refracted and enters the water as per Snell s law.

The

amount of radiance reflected depends on the angle of incidence. Up to about 45, the reflectance is only about 2%. Thus 98% of the energy enters the water at angles of incidence less than 45.

TWO TYPES OF SCHATTERING

Rayleighs

scattering(Molecular

scattering) Mie scattering(Particle scattering)

RAYLEIGH SCATTERING
Rayleighs

scattering is upper atmosphere scattering and sometimes called as clear atmosphere scattering. This occurs when radiation interacts with atmospheric molecules and other tiny particles that are much smaller in diameter than the wavelength of interacting radiation. This scattering is wavelength dependent.

 Reyleigh

scatter is inversely proportional to the fourth power of wavelength. The scattering intensity in a direction is proportional to (1+cos^2 )/^4. Shorter wavelength radiation is scattered more and The forward scattering is equal to the backward scattering and is symmetrical about the surface of incidence.

MIE SCATTERING
Mie

scattering exists when the atmospheric particle diameters are of same size as that of the wavelength of radiations being sense. Spherical particles of water vapour, pollen fumes and dust are the main causes of Mie scatter. This affects longer wavelengths more compared to Rayleighs scattering.

particle sizes greater than about 1, the scattering is independent of wavelength. However this assumes that the particle is non-absorbant. This type of scattering is characterized by pronounced forward scattering.
For

BACK SCATTERING
The

radiation that enters the water is thus absorbed and scattered, depending on the nature of water and wavelength of the radiation. Only 1-3% of the solar energy that enters the surface of clear, infinitely deep water is backscattered to the surface. This part of original solar flux is the signal for remote sensing.

 The

back scattered flux increases with concentration of suspended matter. More than the weight per unit volume, the total number of particles per unit volume decides the backscattering radiation is calculated for a particle diameter of 0.02mm. More number of particles result in an increase in reflective area. Shorter wavelength bands produce higher backscatter.

PENETRATION DEPTH
The

penetration depth of light in the sea has been define for remote sensing purpose as the depth above which 90 % of the back scattered radiation originates.

OCEAN COLOUR
Light rays that fall on ocean are refracted into the ocean depending on the angle of incidence and refractive index of the ocean water. The part of the suns radiant energy which penetrates the ocean is partly absorbed and the rest is scattered, dependent on the nature and abundance of the particulates in the water. The scattered light is deflected to new directional paths, further absorbed/ scattered while some are directed upwards and level the water. It is this upward scattered light that determines the colour of the oceans.

SPECTRAL CHARACTERISTICS
The

spectral characteristics of the water- leaving radiance depends on the relative concentration of optically active constituents of the ocean. In the visible region, for pure sea water, absorption by salt or other dissolved substances are negligible. However, the water molecules and salt ions produce Rayleigh scattering, by which the lower wavelengths are scattered more. The increase in the backscattering coefficient with shorter wavelength gives a deep blue colour for clear oceanic water.

REFLECTANCE RATIO FOR ZERO DEPTH

The

ocean colour variation with respect to turbidity and pigment content can be characterized in terms of the reflectance ratio R() for zero depth. R() is the ratio of the upwelling irradiance just below the surface (Eu ()) and downwelling irradiance just above the surface(Ed()). R()= Eu () / Ed()

 The

reflectance ratio R is dependent on the inherent optical properties, namely the absorption coefficient and the backscattering coefficient. When the backscattering increases, R values increase more or less uniformly throughout the spectrum. Conversely, the rise in absorption diminishes R, especially in the spectral bands corresponding to the specific absorption of the various substances present, thus modifying the shape of the spectral reflectance curve.

 In

case 1 water, colour is mainly decided by the phytoplankton. Their chlorophyll and related pigments have strong absorption in the blue and red region. Both pigment concentration and structure are variable, dependent on species composition, light conditions, nutrient conditions, etc, which makes it impossible to have a standard absorption spectra for all areas and seasons.

 Scattering

by phytoplankton is in the domain of Mie

scattering. The scattering is preferentially in the forward direction, with very small backscattering. In general, as the phytoplankton content increases, the backscattering increases in the green region, but the blue region is absorbed rapidly. Thus, water rich in phytoplankton appears green, while in case 1, water that is poor in phytoplankton will appear deep blue in sunlight.

RADIANCE RECEIVED BY REMOTE SENSORS

Radiance due to Fresnel reflection dependent on the angle of observation The magnitude of the diffuse background depends on atmospheric visibility(clear atmosphere produces less diffuse radiation). Diffused radiation reflected from the water surface. Radiation entering into the sensor field of view due to the reflection from an adjacent pixel and scattered by the atmosphere. The sun and sky radiance refracted into the water are modified by the water and upwells to get out of the water body. This is the useful signal which contains the information characteristics of the water.

 The

direction of view of the sensor determines not only the path length through the atmosphere, but also whether or not the specularly reflected sunlight is included within the field of view of sensor. The sun glint can be avoided by suitably choosing the observation geometry.

 The

radiance seen by the sensor Lt consists of Lt ()= Lp() + Lw()* T()

Where, Lw is the water-leaving radiance, which is to our interest to measure Lp is the path radiance T is the diffuse atmospheric transmittance in the bracket shows the spectral dependence of these terms.

 Lw

is a function of The radiance that entered the water surface The absorption coefficient The scattering function and In shallow water, the bottom reflectance.

EFFECT OF OCEAN WINDS

The

waves produced by the winds cause the effective reflectance of the surface to change significantly near the grazing incidence of the light entering the water from above. Similarly, when the surface is rough, the water leaving radiance changes significantly for light emerging from below which are near the critical angle. However, the roughening of the surface does have a major effect in determining the portion of the sky that is reflected upward toward the sensor.

Thus,

for example, the angular size of the suns glitter path will be determined by the wind speed. However, satellite sensors dedicated for ocean colour sensing have the capability to tilt the instrument to avoid sun glint.

Gulf Coast oil spill: Satellite images may track surface

Space Debris

Surface Temperature and Chlorophyll: 1 km

Specific Examples Wind & Wind Stress (tau - ) Active measurement, using microwave radar to get vector winds speed and direction. Pulse sent from satellite to ocean surface, then scattered depending on surface roughness Surface roughness (capillary waves) depends on wind stress Strength of return to satellite gives wind stress and direction

Map showing the combined areas of responsibility of all National Weather Service offices with marine warning and forecasting responsibilities, as well as the US militarys Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC). JTWC (orange), the National Hurricane Center (blue), and the Central Pacific Hurricane Center (green) share the warning responsibility for tropical cyclones.

Typical daily coverage of ocean surface vector winds from NASAs QuikSCAT , resulting in 90% daily coverage of the worlds ocean.