CHAPTER 4 : MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS

TOPIC

1) TYPES OF MECHANICAL PROPERTIES 2) MECHANICAL TESTS OF METALS 3) HARDNESS TESTS 4) IMPACT TEST

TYPES OF MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

Defined as those properties which completely define its behavior under action of external load or forces. Those properties which associated with :
Its ability to resist failure Its behavior under action of external forces

Knowledge of mechanical properties :

Essential for engineers in selecting suitable materials for various applications.

Mechanical properties

Strength Hardness Ductility Brittleness Toughness

Ability to withstand or support external forces or load without rupture Ability to resist deformation by abrasion, indentation or penetration and scratching by harder bodies. Ability to undergo appreciable plastic deformation before rupture. Ability to fracture when deformed . Opposite to ductility Ability to absorb maximum energy up to fracture. Must be strong & ductile to be tough. Shows ability to withstand impact. Value increase when temperature increases. Ability to retain its original shape & size after removal of load Ability to experience permanent deformation without fracture when subjected to external forces

Elasticity Plasticity

Resilience
Malleability

Ability to absorb energy when it is elastically deformed

Ability to be deformed into thin sheets by rolling or hammering without fracture

Machinability Ability to be cut or removed by cutting tools in various ,machining operations.

Weldability
Castability

Ability of 2 similar or dissimilar metals to be joined by fusion& with or without filler

Ability to be formed into different shapes & sizes from its liquid state

MECHANICAL TESTS OF METALS

All mechanical properties of metal- established by conducting tests on various testing machines. Types of mechanical test :
Tensile

test Hardness test Impact test Compressive test Fatigue test Creep test

Tensile test

understand mechanical behavior by stress-strain test. 3 ways of load application tension, shear, compression Most common mechanical stress-strain performed in tension Performed to determined ;

Elastic limit Yield point Ultimate tensile strength % of elongation & reduction of area

Standard tensile specimen

Circular cross section Reduced section diameter = 12.8 mm Reduce section length = 60mm Gauge length = 50mm
Specimen held in holding grips of apparatus Load applied gradually at a constant rate Specimen will be elongated until fracture Elongation measured by extensometer

Procedure :

Data recorded load vs. elongation

o

Normalized to engineering stress & engineering strain

where : A0 = original cross sectional area before any load applied (m2) F = instantaneous load (N)

Engineering stress :

Engineering strain :
where : li = original length l0 = instantaneous length

Plot a graph stress vs. strain

OA

is a straight line Stress & strain proportional (Hookes Law) where E = modulus of elasticity Slope corresponds to E Called elastic deformation When applied load is released, specimen returns to its original shape.

AB is a small curve
A

is a point where elastic deformation end and plastic deformation begin

Phenomenon

of yielding occurs Called proportional limit Initial departure from linearity

To

determine yielding point precisely

Construct

straight line parallel to elastic portion of curve at a specified strain offset (0.002) B is the intersection of parallel line with curve The stress defined as a yield strength,

behavior for some steels

Elastic-plastic
Well

transition

defined Occurs abruptly

Yield

point phenomenon

yield point plastic deformation initiated. decrease Lower yield point deformation fluctuated at constant Yield strength , average of lower yield point
Upper

BC is an upward curve
Stress

increase to maximum limit (point C) Called tensile strength , TS Corresponds to maximum that can be sustained by a structure in tension . Necking begin to form- decrease of crosssectional area

CD is a downward curve
Specimen

continues to elongate Requires lesser load to continue deformation. decrease. D is a point of fracture or rupture

True stress
where : Ai = instantaneous cross sectional area

True Strain
where : li = instantaneous length

Ductility
Measure

degree of plastic deformation that has been sustained at fracture Can be expressed as :
%

elongation % area reduction

% elongation (% E)
where : lf = length after fracture lo = original length

% area reduction (%AR)

where : Af = cross sectional area at fracture

Brittle material
Has

little or no plastic deformation upon fracture Has less than 5% elongation

Hardness test Measure hardness by forcing an indenter into materials surface. Indenter made of harder material - usually in form of ball. pyramid or cone Early hardness test

1)

Done by comparing with 10 standard mineral Increasing hardness on Mohs scale

2)
3) 4) 5)

talc Gypsum Calcite Fluorite Apatite

6) orthoclase

7) quartz
8) topaz 9) corundum 10) diamond

Important test
Brinell

Hardness Test Rockwell Hardness Test Viekers Hardness Test Knoop Hardness Test

Brinell Hardness Test

By Dr Johan August Brinell in 1900 Performed by pressing steel ball into surface of test pieces using appropriate force. Formula : Brinell Hardness Number , HB (or BHN)

Where

D = diameter of steel ball (mm) P = applied load (kg)

d = diameter of indentation (mm)

Rockwell Hardness Test

Devised in the USA The most common method:

Simple to perform Require no special skills Quick & direct reading Performed when hardness is beyond range of Brinells load is smaller than Brinells

Viekers Hardness Test

The most accurate test

Has

continuous scale of hardness (10 to 1000)

Indenter
Diamond

square based pyramid with 136 angle between opposite faces.

Load
Smaller

than Rockwell & Brinell Between 1 and 1000 g

Suitable for:
Small,

thin selected specimen region

Where P = applied load (kg) d = length of diagonal (mm)

Knoop Hardness Test

Very much similar to Vickers Indenter :

Diamond

pyramid with short depth and diagonal in ratio in ratio of 7:1

Measure diagonal length under microscope. Knoop hardness number designated by HK

Where l = longest diagonal length

Hardness scale for Knoop & Vickers

Approximately

equivalent

Both are referred as micro hardness testing

Basis

of reload & indenter size

Suitable for testing

Brittle

materials (ceramics) Extremely thin metal Exceptionally hard, very shallow carburized or nitride surface

IMPACT TEST

Many machine parts are subjected to sudden applied loads impact loads Important engineering wise to have :
Material

that can withstand impact load without fracturing

A hard, strong may not be suitable when subjected to sharp sudden load. Capacity of metals to withstands impact without fracture
Impact

resistance or impact strength Indication of toughness

Method of measuring toughness

Impact-

testing apparatus

Types of impact-testing apparatus

Charpy Izod

Question
A cylindrical specimen of metal having a diameter of 12.88 mm and a gauge length

of 63.50 mm is tested using a tensile testing machine. The elongation measurement

are recorded in Table 3.
i)

Plot the stress-strain curve on the graph paper provided based on data in Table 3

ii)

Based on the stress-strain curved plotted in (i) :

(1) (2) (3)

Compute the modulus of elasticity Determine the yield strength at a strain offset of 0.002.

Determine the tensile strength

Determine the ductility in percent elongation and percent area reduction