Continuous Column Distillation

Column diagram
feed
F, x
F
bottoms
B, x
B
boilup
V, y
B
reflux
L, x
R
distillate
D, x
D
feed stage

total condenser

reflux drum
(accumulator)
V L
liquid/vapor streams inside
the column flow counter-
current in direct contact with
each other
partial reboiler

x
R
= x
D
y
B
x
B
x
D
K x
B
t
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

all three external streams (F,
D, B) can be liquids (usual case)
for a binary mixture, the
compositions x
F
, x
D
, x
B
all
refer to the more volatile
component
to keep the liquid flow rate
constant, part of the distillate
must be returned to the top of
the column as reflux
the partial reboiler is the last
equilibrium stage in the system
e
n
r
i
c
h
i
n
g

s
e
c
t
i
o
n

s
t
r
i
p
p
i
n
g

s
e
c
t
i
o
n

External mass balance
TMB: F = D + B
CMB: F x
F
= D x
D
+ B x
B


for specified F, x
F
, x
D
, x
B
, there
are only 2 unknowns (D, B)
D
x
F
x
B
x
D
x
B

F
B = F - D
feed
F, x
F
bottoms
B, x
B
distillate
D, x
D
External energy balance
assume column is well-
insulated, adiabatic
feed
F, x
F
bottoms
B, x
B
distillate
D, x
D
EB: F h
F
+ Q
C
+ Q
R
= D h
D
+ B h
B

F, h
F
are known

D and B are saturated liquids
so h
D
, h
B
are also known


unknowns: Q
C
, Q
R

need another equation
Balance on condenser
distillate
D, x
D
reflux
L
0
, x
R
vapor
V
1
, y
1
1. Mass balance
TMB: V
1
= D + L
0
CMB: y
1
= x
D
= x
R
(doesnt help)

unknowns: V
1
, L
0
specify external reflux ratio R = L
0
/D

V
1
= D + (L
0
/D)D = (1 + R)D


2. Energy balance

V
1
H
1
+ Q
C
= (D + L
0
)h
D
= V
1
h
D
Q
C
= V
1
(h
D
H
1
)

then calculate Q
R
from column energy balance
h
D
> H
1
Q
C
< 0
Q
R
> 0
Splits
Sometimes used instead of specifying
compositions in product streams.

What is the fractional recovery (FR) of
benzene in the distillate?

What is the fractional recovery (FR) of
toluene in the bottoms?

Most volatile component (MVC) is benzene:

x
F
= 0.46
FR
MVC

x
D
D
x
F
F

0.99D
0.46F
FR
LVC

(1 x
B
)B
(1 x
F
)F

0.98D
0.54F
Calculating fractional recoveries
FR
MVC

x
D
D
x
F
F

0.99(281)
0.46(620)
0.975
FR
LVC

(1 x
B
)B
(1 x
F
)F

0.98(339)
0.54(620)
0.992
D
x
F
x
B
x
D
x
B

F
0.46 0.02
0.99 0.02

F
0.44
0.97
(620) 281
B = F D = 620 - 281 = 339
vapor
V
1
, y
1
distillate
D, x
D
Stage-by-stage analysis
Lewis-Sorel method
reflux
L
0
, x
0
V
2
y
2
L
1
x
1
stage 1
Consider the top of the distillation column:
V
1
, V
2
are saturated vapors
L
0
, L
1
are saturated liquids
Which streams have compositions related by VLE?
V
1
, L
1
They are streams leaving the same equilibrium stage.
K
1
(T
1
,P) = y
1
/x
1

How are the compositions of streams V
2
and L
1
related?
Need to perform balances around stage 1.
Relationships for stage 1
TMB: L
0
+ V
2
= L
1
+ V
1
CMB: L
0
x
0
+ V
2
y
2
= L
1
x
1
+ V
1
y
1
EB: L
0
h
0
+ V
2
H
2
= L
1
h
1
+ V
1
H
1

VLE: K
1
(T
1
,P) = y
1
/x
1

vapor
V
1
, y
1
distillate
D, x
D
reflux
L
0
, x
0
V
2
y
2
L
1
x
1
stage 1
There are 14 variables:
4 flow rates (L
1
, V
2
, L
0
, V
1
)
4 compositions (x
1
, y
2
, x
0
, y
1
)
4 enthalpies (h
1
, H
2
, h
0
, H
1
)
T
1
, P
We usually specify 10 of them:
P, x
D
, D, R = L
0
/D
x
D
= x
0
= y
1
V
1
= L
0
+ D
T
1
and all 4 enthalpies (by VLE)
4 unknowns (L
1
, x
1
, V
2
, y
2
) and 4 equations:
problem is completely specified.
Relationships for stage 2
TMB: L
1
+ V
3
= L
2
+ V
2
CMB: L
1
x
1
+ V
3
y
3
= L
2
x
2
+ V
2
y
2
EB: L
1
h
1
+ V
3
H
3
= L
2
h
2
+ V
2
H
2

VLE: K
2
(T
2
,P) = y
2
/x
2
can solve for 4 unknowns (L
2
, x
2
, V
3
, y
3
)
V
2
,y
2
L
1
,x
1
and so on proceed down the column to the reboiler. Very tedious.

Simplifying assumption:
If l
i
(latent heat of vaporization) is not a strong function of composition,
then each mole of vapor condensing on a given stage causes one mole of
liquid to vaporize.

Constant Molal Overflow (CMO): vapor and liquid flow rates are constant
stage 2
V
3
,y
3
L
2
,x
2
Constant molal overflow
TMB: L
1
+ V
3
= L
2
+ V
2
CMO: V
3
- V
2
= L
2
- L
1
= 0

V
3
= V
2
= V

L
2
= L
1
= L

We can drop all subscripts on L and V in the upper section of
the column (above the feed stage).

internal reflux ratio: L/V = constant

Rectifying column
B, x
B
D, x
D
F, x
F
Feed enters at the bottom, as a vapor.

No reboiler required.

Can give very pure distillate; but bottoms
stream will not be very pure.

Mass balance around top of column,
down to and including stage j:
L, x
R
stage j
V
j+1
,y
j+1
L
j
,x
j
CMB: V
j+1
y
j+1
= L
j
x
j
+ Dx
D


CMO: y
j+1
= (L/V)

x
j
+ (D/V) x
D



D = V - L

y
j+1
= (L/V)

x
j
+ (1 - L/V) x
D

Relates compositions of passing streams.
Lewis analysis of rectifying column
1. Assume CMO (V
j
= V
j+1
= V; L
j
= L
j-1
= L)
2. Need specified x
D
; x
D
= y
1
3. Stage 1: use VLE to obtain x
1
x
1
= y
1
/K
1
(T
1
,P)

4. Use mass balance to obtain y
2
y
2
= (L/V)

x
1
+ (1 - L/V) x
D
5. Stage 2: use VLE to obtain x
2
x
2
= y
2
/K
2
(T
2
,P)

6. Use mass balance to obtain y
3
y
3
= (L/V)

x
2
+ (1 - L/V) x
D
7. Continue until x = x
B

Graphical analysis of rectifying column
equation of the operating line:
y = (L/V)

x + (1 - L/V) x
D


slope = (L/V)
always positive (compare to flash drum)
plotting the operating line:
y
int
= (1 - L/V) x
D
recall: x
D
= x
R
= x
0
; the passing stream is y
1
the operating line starts at the point (x
0
,y
1
)
the operating line gives the compositions of all passing streams (x
j
,y
j+1
)
find a second point on the operating line:
y = x = (L/V) x + (1 - L/V) x
D
= x
D

plot x
D
on y = x
y
int

x
D

= x
0
(x
0
,y
1
)
McCabe-Thiele analysis: rectifying column
1. Plot VLE line (y
i
vs. x
i
)
2. Draw the y = x line

3. Plot x
D
on y = x
4. Plot y
int
= x
D
(1 L/V)
L/V internal reflux ratio, usually not specified
instead, the external reflux ratio (R) is specified

5. Draw in the operating line
6. Step off stages, alternating between VLE and operating line,
starting at (x
0
,y
1
) located at y = x = x
D
, until you reach x = x
B
7. Count the stages.
L
V

L
D
V
D

L
D
(L+D)
D

R
R+1
Ex.: MeOH-H
2
O rectifying column
y
int

(x
1
,y
1
)

(x
2
,y
2
)

(x
3
,y
3
)
(x
1
,y
2
)
(x
2
,y
3
)
x
B
2. Draw y=x line
3. Plot x
D
on y=x
4. Plot y
int
= x
D
(1 - L/V)
6. Step off stages from x
D
to x
B
7. Count the stages

Rectifying column with total condenser
Specifications: x
D
= 0.8, R = 2
Find N required to achieve x
B
= 0.1
L/V = R/(R+1) = 2/3
y
int
= x
D
(1 - L/V)= 0.8/3 = 0.26
NEVER step over the VLE line.

lowest x
B
possible for this op. line

1. Plot VLE line
5. Draw in operating line
x
D
= x
0
(x
0
,y
1
)
stage 1

stage 2

stage 3

N = 3

Limiting cases: rectification
x
D
= x
0
(x
0
,y
1
)
stage 1

(x
1
,y
1
)
Specifications:
x
D
= 0.8, vary R = L/D
1. L 0
R = L/D 0 NO REFLUX
L/V 0
L/V = 0
No reflux!
Max. distance between VLE and op. line
Max. separation on each equil. stage
Corresponds to N
min
, but no distillate!
L/V = 1
Total reflux!
2. D 0
R = L/D TOTAL REFLUX
L/V = R/(R+1) 1
(LHpitals Rule)

Operating line is y=x
Column operates like a single
equilibrium stage.
(Why bother?)
0 L/V 1
0 R
Minimum reflux ratio

Specifications:
x
D
= 0.8, vary R
L/V = 0
The number of stages N required
to reach the VLE-op. line
intersection point is .
L/V = 1
0 L/V 1
0 R




x
B ,min
for this R

This represents x
B,min
for a
particular R.
It also represents R
min
for
this value of x
B
.
x
D
= x
0
(x
0
,y
1
)
R
min
for this x
B
Increasing R = L/D
Decreasing D
Decreasing x
B
(for fixed N)
Optimum reflux ratio
c
o
s
t
/
l
b

external reflux ratio, R
R
min
R
opt
operating (energy) cost
Rule-of-thumb:
1.05 R
opt
/R
min
1.25
R
actual
can be specified as a multiple of R
min

s
t
a
g
e
s

min. heat
required
capital cost
total cost
Stripping column
B, x
B
D, x
D
F, x
F
Feed enters at the top, as a liquid.

No reflux required.

Can give very pure bottoms; but distillate
stream will not be very pure.

Mass balance around bottom of column,
up to and including stage k:
stage k
CMB: L
k-1
x
k-1
= V
k
y
k
+ Bx
B


V
k
,y
k
L
k-1
,
x
k-1
CMO: y
k
= (L/V)

x
k-1
- (B/V) x
B



L = V + B

y
k
= (L/V)

x
k-1
+ (1 - L/V) x
B

Graphical analysis of stripping column
Where is the partial reboiler? Designate this as stage N+1, with x
N+1
= x
B
.
x
B
= x
N
(x
N+1
,y
N+2
)
equation of the operating line:
y = (L/V)

x + (1 - L/V) x
B

slope = L / V
always positive
plotting the operating line:
y = x = (L/V) x + (1 - L/V) x
B
= x
B

plot x
B
on y = x
finding the operating line slope:
L
V

V +B
V
1+
B
V
(recall V/B is the boilup ratio)

Coordinates of the reboiler: (x
N+1
,y
N+1
)
(x
N+1
,y
N+1
)
PR

McCabe-Thiele analysis: stripping column
1. Plot VLE line (y
i
vs. x
i
)

2. Draw the y = x line

3. Plot x
B
on y = x
4. Draw in the operating line

5. Step off stages, alternating between VLE and operating line,
starting at (x
N+1
,y
N+2
) located at y = x = x
B
, until you reach x = x
D

6. Count the stages.
Ex.: MeOH-H
2
O stripping column
(0.7,1)



(x
N-2
,y
N-2
)
stage 2

2. Draw y=x line
3. Plot x
B
= x
N+1
on y = x
4. Draw op. line
5. Step off stages starting at PR

6. Stop when you reach x = x
D
Column with partial reboiler
Specifications:
x
B
= 0.07,
Find N required to achieve x
D
= 0.55
7. Count the stages.



V / B 2
L / V 1+B/ V 1.5


y 11.5x 0.05


x 1.05/1.5 0.7
(x
N+1
,
y
N+1
)
(x
N
,y
N+1
)

PR

(x
N
,y
N
) (x
N-1
,y
N
)
(x
N-1
,y
N-1
)
x
D,max
for this
boilup ratio


stage 3

NEVER step over the VLE line.

(x
N-2
,y
N-2
)

stage 1

x
B
= x
N+1
(x
N+1
,y
N+2
)
1. Plot VLE line

x
D

Limiting cases: stripping
Specifications:
x
B
= 0.07, vary boilup ratio
Max. distance between VLE and op. line
Max. separation on each equil. stage
Corresponds to N
min
. But no bottoms product!
Behaves as if the column
wasnt even there.
(Why bother?)


V / B

x
B
= x
N+1

PR



1 L /V


V / B 0
1.
NO BOILUP
2. B 0



Operating line is y=x
TOTAL BOILUP


L /V
NO BOILUP


L /V 1
TOTAL BOILUP
Minimum boilup ratio
Specifications:
x
B
= 0.07, vary boilup ratio
The number of stages N required
to reach the VLE-op. line
intersection point is .
y
D ,max
for
this boilup ratio

This represents y
D,max
for a
particular boilup ratio.
It also represents the
minimum boilup ratio for
this value of y
D
.


1 L /V

x
B
= x
N+1

PR

No boilup


L /V
Total boilup


L /V 1


V / B 0



McCabe-Thiele analysis
of complete distillation column
stage 1

1. Draw y=x line
2. Plot x
D
and x
B
on y=x
3. Draw both op. lines
4. Step off stages starting
at either end, using new op.
line as you cross their
intersection

5. Stop when you reach
the other endpoint

Total condenser, partial reboiler
Specifications:
x
D
= 0.8, R = 2
x
B
= 0.07,
Find N required
Locate feed stage
6. Count stages



V / B 2


PR



stage 2

x
B
x
D
Feed enters
on stage 2

NEVER step over
the VLE line.

7. Identify feed stage

If the feed enters as a saturated liquid, the liquid
flow rate below the feed stage will increase:
If the feed enters as a saturated vapor, the vapor
flow rate above the feed stage will increase:
Feed condition
Changing the feed temperature affects internal
flow rates in the column
V

L

feed
F

V

L

L L+F
V V +F
F +L+V L +V
L L+0.5F V V +0.5F
and
If the feed flashes as it enters the feed stage to form a
two-phase mixture, 50 % liquid, both the liquid and
vapor flow rates will increase:
Feed quality, q
Fh
F
+Lh
L
+VH
V
Lh
L
+VH
V
EB:
Fh
F
+(V V)H
V
(L L)h
L
rearrange:
V V L L F
TMB:
Fh
F
+(L L F)H
V
(L L)h
L
substitute:
(L L)(H
V
h
L
) F(H
V
h
F
)
combine terms:
L L
F

H
V
h
F
H
V
h
L
define:
q
q mol satd liquid
generated on feed
plate, per mol feed
Different types of feed quality
saturated liquid feed q = 1
L L+F
feed flashes to form 2-phase 0 < q < 1
mixture, q% liquid
L L+qF
q
L L
F
L L+qF
and
V V +(1 q)F
subcooled liquid feed q > 1
- some vapor condenses on feed plate
superheated vapor q < 0
- some liquid vaporizes on feed plate
V V +F saturated vapor feed q = 0
Equation of the feed line
rectifying section CMB:

Vy
k
Lx
k 1
Bx
B
Vy
j +1
Lx
j
+Dx
D
(V V)y (L L)x (Bx
B
+Dx
D
)
y
L L
V V

x +
Fz
F
V V
Bx
B
+Dx
D
Fz
F
L L qF
V V (1 q)F
and
y
q
(1 q)
x +
z
F
1 q
stripping section CMB:
intersection of top and
bottom operating lines:
substitute:
equation of the feed line:
Plotting the feed line
where does the feed line intersect y=x?


y
q
(1 q)
x +
z
F
1 q
x
q
(1 q)
x +
z
F
1 q
x 1+
q
(1 q)

z
F
1 q
x
1 q

z
F
1 q
y = x = z
F


feed type q slope, m
sat'd liquid q=1 m =
sat'd vapor q=0 m = 0
2-phase liq/vap 0<q<1 m < 0
subcooled liq q>1 m > 1
superheated vap q<0 0<m<1


z
F
s
a
t
'
d

l
i
q

sat'd vapor
Ex.: Complete MeOH-H
2
O column
1. Draw y=x line
2. Plot x
D
, x
B
and z
F
on y=x
3. Draw feed line, slope = -0.5
5. Draw bottom op. line (no
calc. required)

6. Step off stages starting at
either end, using new op. line as
you cross the feed line.

Total condenser, partial reboiler
Specifications:
x
D
= 0.9, x
B
= 0.04, z
F
= 0.5, R=1
Feed is a 2-phase mixture, 50% liq.
Find N and N
F,opt
.

4. Draw top op. line, slope = L/V = 0.5

x
B
x
D
z
F





1

6

2

5

3

4

Operating
lines intersect
on stage 4.
This is N
F,opt
.

Using a non-optimal feed location reduces separation.


N = 6 + PR

PR

We can independently specify
only 2 of the following 3
variables: R, q, V/B (usually: R, q).
Feed lines in rectifying/stripping columns



PR

x
B

z
F




z
F
x
D
stripping column
partial reboiler, no condenser
satd liquid feed, vapor distillate
F and V are passing streams
rectifying column
total condenser, no reboiler
satd vapor feed, liquid bottoms
F and B are passing streams

x
B

bottom operating line
top operating
line

y
D

Design freedom
choice of R dictates
required boilup ratio.
Fixed q. Vary R:

x
B
x
D
z
F
Fixed R. Vary q:

x
B
x
D
z
F
R
min
q
min
pinch point
decrease R
pinch
point

You cannot step over a pinch point this would require N = . It corresponds to a position in
the column where there is no difference in composition between adjacent stages.
Another type of pinch point
1. Draw y=x line
2. Plot x
D
, x
B
and z
F
on y=x
3. Draw feed line, slope = q/(q-1)
5. Dont cross the VLE line!

Ethanol-water
x
D
= 0.82, x
B
= 0.07
z
F
= 0.5, q = 0.5
Find R
min
4. Draw top op. line to intersect
with feed line on VLE line

x
B
x
D
z
F
6. Redraw top operating line as
tangent to VLE.

pinch
point

Additional column inputs/outputs
bottoms
B, x
B
distillate
D, x
D
V

L

feed 2
F
2
, z
2
, q
2
V

L

feed 1
F
1
, z
1
, q
1
V

L

distillate
D, x
D
bottoms
B, x
B
feed
F, z

V

L

side-stream
S, x
S
or y
S
V

L

V

L

Column with
two feeds:
Column with
three products:
Each intermediate input/output stream changes the mass balance, requiring a new operating line.
z
2
> z
1
and/or
q
2
> q
1
side-streams
must be
saturated
liquid or vapor
Multiple feedstreams
1. Draw y=x line
2. Plot x
D
, z
1
, z
2
and x
B
on y=x
3. Draw both feed lines
6. Draw bottom operating line
(no calc. required)

7. Step off stages starting
at either end, using new op. line each
time you cross an intersection


4. Draw top op. line, slope = L/V

1

PR

2

5

3

4

Optimum location
for feed 1 is stage 5.
Optimum location
for feed 2 is stage 3.


Total condenser, partial reboiler
Specifications:
x
D
= 0.9, x
B
= 0.07, z
1
= 0.4, z
2
=0.6
Some specified q-values
R = 1. Find N, N
F1,opt
, N
F2,opt

x
B
x
D
z
2
z
1
5. Calculate slope of middle
operating line, L/V, and draw
middle operating line
z
1
= z
2
Slope of middle operating line
2-feed mass balances:
TMB: F
2
+ V = L + D
CMB: F
2
z
2
+ Vy
j+1
= Lx
j
+ Dx
D
middle operating line equation:
y = (L/V)x + (Dx
D
- F
2
z
2
)/V

obtain slope from:
L = F
2
q
2
+ L = F
2
q
2
+ (R)(D)
V = L + D F
2


feed 2
F
2
, z
2
, q
2
D, x
D
V

L

stage j
side-stream
S, x
S
or y
S
D, x
D
V

L

stage j
middle operating line equation:
y = (L/V)x + (Dx
D
+ Sx
S
)/V

side-stream feed-stream with ve flow rate
satd liq y = x = x
S

satd vapor y = x = y
S

side-stream mass balances:
TMB: V- L= D + S
CMB: Vy
j+1
- Lx
j
= Dx
D
+ Sx
S
McCabe-Thiele analysis of side-streams
Saturated liquid side-stream, x
s
= 0.64

x
B
x
D
x
S
z

Saturated vapor side-stream, y
s
= 0.73

x
B
x
D
y
S
z

Side-stream must correspond exactly to stage position.





Partial condensers
A partial condenser can be used when a
vapor distillate is desired:
D, y
D
V

L

L, x
0
V, y
1
A partial condenser is an equilibrium stage.
CMB: Vy
j+1
= Lx
j
+ Dy
D


Operating line equation:


y

= (L/V)x + Dy
D
= (L/V)x + (1 - L/V)y
D

y
D


PC

1

2



Total reboilers
A total reboiler is simpler (less expensive)
than a partial reboiler and is used when the
bottoms stream is readily vaporized:
A total reboiler is not an equilibrium
stage.
x
B
,y
B
TR

N

N-1



B, x
B
V

L

stage N
V, y
B
Stage efficiency
Under real operating conditions, equilibrium is approached but not achieved:
N
actual
> N
equil

overall column efficiency: E
overall
= N
equil
/N
actual

Efficiency can vary from stage to stage.
Reboiler efficiency tray efficiency
where y
n
* is the equilibrium vapor composition
(not actually achieved) on stage n:

y
n
* = K
n
x
n
Can also define Murphree liquid
efficiency:
E
ML

x
n
x
n 1
x
n
* x
n 1
x
j
* = y
j
/ K
j


E
MV

y
n
y
n+1
y
n
* y
n+1
Murphree vapor efficiency:

x
B
x
D
z




PR


Ex.: Vapor efficiency of MeOH-H
2
O column
Total condenser, partial reboiler
Specifications:
x
D
= 0.9, x
B
= 0.07, z = 0.5, q = 0.5,
R = 1, E
MV,PR
= 1, E
MV
= 0.75.
Find N and N
F,opt
.












1. Draw y=x line
2. Plot x
D
, z, and x
B
on y=x
3. Draw feed line
5. Draw bottom operating line
(no calc. required)

6. Find partial reboiler


4. Draw top op. line, slope = L/V
7. Step off stages, using E
MV
to
adjust vertical step size.

8. Label real stages.



2

8

3

6

4

5

1

7

N = 8 + PR
N
F,opt
= 6
To use E
LV
, adjust horizontal step size instead.
Intermediate condensers and reboilers
Intermediate condensers/reboilers can improve
the energy efficiency of column distillation:

1. by decreasing the heat that must be supplied
at the bottom of the column, providing part of
the heat using an intermediate reboiler
instead

- use a smaller (cheaper) heating element at the
bottom of the column, or lower temperature
steam to heat the boilup

1. by decreasing the cooling that must be
supplied at the top of the column, providing
part of the cooling using an intermediate
condenser instead

2. - use a smaller (cheaper) cooling element at the top
of the column, and/or a higher temperature coolant
for the intermediate condenser
distillate
D, x
D
bottoms
B, x
B
feed
F, z

V

L

V

L

V

L

S, x
S
intermediate
reboiler
y
S
= x
S
Each column section has its own operating line.
V

L

V
2
L
1
L
0
, x
0
V
1
, y
1
D, x
D
stage 1
Subcooled reflux
If the condenser is located below the top of the
column, the reflux stream has to be pumped to
the top of the column.
EB: V
2
H
2
+ L
0
h
0
= V
1
H
1
+ L
1
h
1


where H
1
H
2
= H, but h
0
h
1
= h


(V
2
V
1
)H = L
1
h - L
0
h
0


cH = (L
0
+ c)h - L
0
h
0
= L
0
(h - h
0
) + ch
c
h h
0
H h
L
0
(1 q
0
)L
0
L
1
V
2

L
0
+c
V
1
+c
where L
0
/V
1
= (L
0
/D)/(1 + L
0
/D) = R/(R + 1)
CMO is valid below stage 1. Find L/V = L
1
/V
2
?

V
1
= V
2
- c and L
1
= L
0
+ c

c
Pumping a saturated liquid damages the
pump, by causing cavitation. The reflux
stream (L
0
) should be subcooled. This will
cause some vapor to condense.
Subcooled reflux causes L/V to increase.
Superheated boilup causes L/V to increase.
q
0
quality of reflux

L
0
+(1 q
0
)L
0
V
1
+(1 q
0
)L
0

2 q
0
( )
L
0
/ V
1
1+(1 q
0
)L
0
/ V
1
Open steam distillation
B, x
B
D, x
D
mostly MeOH
S, y
S
L, x
R
stage j
V
j+1
,
y
j+1
L
j
,
x
j
MeOH/H
2
O
feed
F, z

bottoms
B, x
B
If the bottoms stream is primarily water,
then the boilup is primarily steam.

Can replace reboiler with direct steam
heating (S).
Top operating line and feed lines do not
change.

Bottom operating line is different:
TMB: V + B = L + S
CMB: V y
j+1
+ B x
B
= L x
j
+ S y
S
usually 0
Operating line equation:


y

= (L/V) x - (L/V) x
B
x
int
: x = x
B
CMO: B = L
mostly H
2
O
Ex.: Open steam distillation of MeOH/H
2
O
1. Draw y=x line
2. Plot x
D
and z
F
on y=x
4. Draw feed line, slope = q/(q-1)
6. Draw bottom op. line (no
calc. required)

7. Step off stages starting
at either end, using new op. line
as you cross their intersection


5. Draw top op. line, slope = L/V

x
B
x
D
z
F
3. Plot x
B
on x-axis

1

6

2

5

3

4

All stages are on the column
(no partial reboiler).


N = 6 N
F,opt
= 4

Specifications:
x
D
= 0.9, x
B
= 0.07, z
F
= 0.5
Feed is a 2-phase mixture, 50% liq.
Total condenser, open steam, R = 1.
Find N and N
F,opt
.
Column internals
Also called a perforated tray
Simple, cheap, easy to clean
Good for feeds that contain suspended solids
Poor turndown performance (low efficiency when operated below designed flow rate);
prone to weeping
Sieve tray
Other types of trays
Some valves close when vapor velocity drops,
keeping vapor flow rate constant
Better turndown performance
Slightly more expensive, and harder to clean
than sieve tray
Valve tray
Excellent contact between vapor and liquid
Risers around holes prevent weeping
Good performance at high and low liquid
flow rates
Very expensive, and very hard to clean
Not much used anymore
Bubble cap tray
Downcomers
Dual-pass tray
In large diameter columns, use multi-pass trays
to reduce liquid loading in downcomers
Cross-flow tray (single pass)
Both liquid and vapor pass through holes
Narrow operating range
Dual-flow tray (no downcomer)
Tray efficiency
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y

vapor flow rate
weeping/du
mping
flooding
design
point

Weeping/dumping: when vapor flow rate is too low, liquid drips
constantly/periodically through holes in sieve tray
Flooding: when vapor flow rate is too high, liquid on tray mixes with liquid on
tray above
Column distillation videos
Normal column operation:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QQgtcNzW9Nw&NR=1

Flooding: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tHOlFleAkNE

Weeping: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tRRxBCSuz48

Column flooding
1. jet flood (due to entrainment)
vapor flow rate too high
2. lack of downcomer seal
weir height below downcomer
vapor flows up downcomer
3. insufficient downcomer clearance
weir height above downcomer
liquid backs up downcomer
ensure bottom edge of downcomer is 12 below top edge of outlet weir.
Column sizing
1. Calculate vapor flood velocity, u
flood
(ft/s)

u
flood
C
sb,f

20

0.2

L

V

V
where C
sb,f
is the capacity factor, from empirical correlation with flow parameter, FP
FP
W
L
W
V

L
where W
L
and W
V
are the mass flow rates of liquid and vapor, respectively
2. Determine net area required for vapor flow, A
net
, based on
operating vapor velocity, u
op
, ft/s

u
op
0.75u
flood

V MW
V
( )
3600
V
A
net
where V is molar vapor flow rate and MW
V
is average molecular weight of vapor
Tray spacing
Column sizing, cont.
Relationship between net area for vapor flow, A
net
, in ft
2
, and
column diameter, D, in ft:

A
net

D
2

4
where h is the fraction of the cross-sectional area available for vapor flow (i.e., not
occupied by the downcomer)
The required column diameter, D, in ft, is also:

D
4V MW
V
( )
3600
V
u
op

4V
3600 u
op
RT
P
Required column diameter changes where the mass balance changes.
- build column in sections, with optimum diameter for each section, or
- build column with single diameter:
if feed is saturated liquid, design for the bottom
if feed is saturated vapor, design for the top
- balance section diameters (2-enthalpy feed, intermediate condenser/reboiler)
Packed columns
larger surface area, for better contact between liquid and vapor
preferred for column diameters < 2.5
packing is considerably more expensive than trays
change in vapor/liquid composition is continuous (unlike staged column)
analysis like a staged column: HETP (= Height Equivalent to a Theoretical Plate/Tray)

packing height required = no. equil. stages x HETP

packing can be metal, ceramic, glass (depends on feed requirements: corrosive, high T, etc)
structured packing: random packing: