Basic Surveying

CE 263

Introduction to Surveying
Definition:

Surveying is the science and art of determining the relative positions of points above, on, or beneath the earths surface and locating the points in the field.

The work of the surveyor consists of 5 phases:

1. 2.

3.

4. 5.

Decision Making selecting method, equipment and final point locations. Fieldwork & Data Collection making measurements and recording data in the field. Computing & Data Processing preparing calculations based upon the recorded data to determine locations in a useable form. Mapping or Data Representation plotting data to produce a map, plat, or chart in the proper form. Stakeout locating and establishing monuments or stakes in the proper locations in the field.

2 Categories of Surveying:
1.

Plane Surveying surveying with the reference base for fieldwork and computations are assumed to be a flat horizontal surface.
Generally within a 12 mile radius the pull of gravity is very nearly parallel to that at any other point within the radius and thus horizontal lines can be considered straight.

2.

Geodetic Surveying surveying technique to determine relative positions of widely spaced points, lengths, and directions which require the consideration of the size and shape of the earth. (Takes the earths curvature into account.)

7 Types of Surveys:
1.

2. 3.

4.

Photogrammetry mapping utilizing data obtained by camera or other sensors carried in airplanes or satellites. Boundary Surveying establishing property corners, boundaries, and areas of land parcels. Control Surveying establish a network of horizontal and vertical monuments that serve as a reference framework for other survey projects. Engineering Surveying providing points and elevations for the building Civil Engineering projects.

7 Types of Surveys:
5.

6.

Topographic Surveying collecting data and preparing maps showing the locations of natural man-made features and elevations of points o the ground for multiple uses. Route Surveys topographic and other surveys for long narrow projects associated with Civil Engineering projects.
Highways, railroads, pipelines, and transmission lines.

7.

Hydrographic Surveying mapping of shorelines and the bottom of bodies of water.

Also known as bathymetric surveying.

Brief History of Surveying:

1.

Surveying had its beginning in Egypt about 1400 BC

2.

Greeks: expanded Egyptian work and developed Geometry.

Developed one of the earliest surveying instruments Diopter (a form of level).

Land along the Nile River was divided for taxation. Divisions were washed away by annual floods. ROPE-STRETCHERS Egyptian surveyors were created to relocate the land divisions (measurements were made with ropes having knots at unit distances). Extensive use of surveying in building of Egyptian monuments

Brief History of Surveying:

3.

Romans: developed surveying into a science to create the Roman roads, aqueducts, and land division systems.

Surveyors held great power, had schools and a professional organization Developed several instruments:

Groma cross instrument used to determine lines and right angles Libella A frame with a plumb bob used for leveling Chorobates 20 straight edge with oil in notch for leveling

4.

Middle Ages: land division of Romans continued in Europe.

Quadrans square brass frame capable of turning angles up to 90 and has a graduated scale developed by an Italian named Von Piso.

Brief History of Surveying:

5.

18th & 19th Century in the New World: the need for mapping and marking land claims caused extensive surveying, especially by the English.

1785: United Stated began extensive surveys of public lands into one mile square sections
30 states surveyed under the U.S. Public Land System (also called the Rectangular System)

1807: United States Geological Survey founded to establish an accurate control network and mapping Famous American Surveyors: George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, George Rogers Clark, Abe Lincoln and many more.

Brief History of Surveying:

6.

20th Century and Beyond: As technology advanced, population increased, and land value caused development of licensure for surveyors in all states.

Educational requirements for licensure began in the early 1990s Capable of electronic distance measurement, positioning using global positioning systems, construction machine control, and lidar (scanning) mapping Involvement in rebuilding of the infrastructure and geographic information systems (GIS) Shortage of licensed professionals is projected well into the 21st century

Measurement of Distance

Linear measurement is the basis of all surveying and even though angles may be read precisely, the length of at least one line in a tract must be measured to supplement the angles in locating points.

Methods of measuring a horizontal distance:

Rough Measuring: Pacing, Odometer readings, Tacheometry (stadia), Taping, EDM, and GPS
Only the last three meet survey accuracy requirements Distance from stadia: (High wire-Low wire) * 100 = Distance (ft)

More accurate measuring: taping, EDM (1966), GPS EDM and GPS are most common in todays surveys In pacing, one establishes the # of paces/100 by counting the # of paces over a pre-measured 300 line

Measurement of Distance

Taping: applying the known length of a graduated tape directly to a line a number of times.

2 Problems exist in Taping:

1.
2.

Measuring the distance between two existing points Laying out a known distance with only the starting point in place

Measurement of Distance
1. 2. 3. 4.

5. 6.

6 Steps of Taping Lining in shortest distance between two points is a straight line. Applying tension rear chain is anchor and head chain applies required tension. Plumbing horizontal distance requires tape to be horizontal. Marking tape lengths each application of the tape requires marking using chaining pins to obtain total length. Reading the tape the graduated tape must be read correctly. Recording the distance the total length must be reported and recorded correctly.

Types of Chains and Tapes

Before

the ability to make steel rods and bands, sticks were cut into lengths of 16.5 (Rod) and they were laid end to end to measure. Gunters Chain
66 long with 100 link w/each link being 7.92 inches or 66 feet long Developed by Edmund Gunter in 1600s in England and made with individual wires with a loop at each end connected Chain had between 600-800 wearing surfaces which with hard use would wear and cause chain to elongate Measurements were recorded in chains and links 7ch 94.5lk = 7.945 ch = 7.945 X 66/ch = 524.37 1 chain = 4 rods; 80 chains = 1 mile

Types of Chains and Tapes

Engineers Chain
Same construction as Gunters Chain, but each link is 1.0 long and was used for engineering projects

Surveyors and Engineers Tapes

Made of to 3/8 wide steel tapes in 100; 200; 300 lengths Multiple types of marking and graduation:
Available

in chains, feet, and metric Graduated:

Throughout feet and tenths marked the entire length Extra foot feet marked the length of the tape with additional foot at the 0 end graduated in tenths and hundreds of the foot

Types of Chains and Tapes

Invar

Cloth,

Made of special nickel steel to reduce length variations due to temperature changes The tapes are extremely brittle and expensive Used most of the time for standard comparison of tapes
Lower accuracy and stored on reels. Used for measurement of 0.1 accuracy requirements

Tapes

Fiberglass, and PVC Tapes:

1. 2. 3. 4.

Chaining Pins set of 11, used to mark the tape lengths Hand Level used to determine required plumbing height Plumb Bob used to transfer the mark from the tape to ground Tension Handle used to maintain correct tension on tape

Accessories

Taping (Field Process)

1.

The line to be taped should be marked at both ends

Keeps measurement on line Rear chain person should keep the head chain person on line 1 of line error/100 = 0.01 error in length

2.

Applying Tension
Rear chainman is anchor and should hold 100 mark over point

Tension is applied by head chain person normally 12 to 30 pounds of pull Tapes are standardized at 12 lbs., but greater is utilized to compensate for sag

Taping (Field Process)

3.

Plumbing
One end of tape is raised to maintain a horizontal measuring plane. ONLY one end is elevated

This allows measurements to be made on uneven ground If a high spot exists in center, break tape by measuring to the top and then move forward to complete the distance

Slope Measurements:
Generally,

measurements are made horizontally, but on even, often man-made slopes the distance can be measured directly on the slope, but the vertical or zenith angle must be obtained.
Horizontal Distance = sin Zenith Angle X Slope Distance Horizontal Distance = cos Vertical Angle X Slope Distance

Stationing:
Starting

point is 0+00 and each 100 is one station 700 from starting point is Station 7+00 If distance is 857.23 from starting point, it is expressed as Station 8+57.23

Taping Error:
1. 2. 3.

Instrumental Error a tape may have different length due to defect in manufacture or repair or as the result of kinks Natural Error length of tape varies from normal due to temperature, wind and weight of tape (sag) Personal Error tape person may be careless in setting pins, reading the tape, or manipulating the equipment
Instrumental and natural error can be corrected mathematically, but personal error can only be corrected by remeasure. When a tape is obtained, it should either be standardized or checked against a standard.
Tapes

standardized at National Bureau of Standards in Maryland

Standardized at 68 degrees F and 12 lbs. tension fully supported.

Tape Error Correction:

1)

Measuring between two existing points:

1) If a tape is long, the distance will be short, thus any correction must be added 2) If tape is short, the distance will be long, thus any correction must be subtracted 3) If you are setting or establishing a point, the above rule is reversed.

Generally can correct for tape length, temperature, tension, and sag, but tension and sag are negated by increasing tension to approximately 25 30 lbs.

Error in Taping:
Tape

Length: Correction per foot = Error in 100/100

If tape was assumed to be 100.00 but when standardized was found to be 100.02 after distance measured at 565.75 then: Correction =(100.02-100.00)/100.00 = 0.0002 error/ft 565.75 X .0002/ = 0.11 correction and based upon rule, must be added, thus true distance = 565.86 If tape had been 99.98 then correction would be subtracted and true distance would be 565.64

Error in Taping:
Temperature

Tapes in U.S. are standardized at 68F; the temperature difference above or below that will change the length of the tape

Tapes have a relatively constant coefficient of expansion of 0.0000065 per unit length per F CT = 0.0000065(Temp (F)-68) Length Example: Assume a distance was measured when temperature was 30F using a 100 tape was 872.54 (68 30) X 0.00000645 X 872.54 = 0.21 error tape is short, thus distance is long, error must be subtracted and thus 872.54 0.21 = 872.33 (note: temperature difference is absolute difference)

Surveying Metric Conversion

1

Survey Foot = 1200 / 3937 meters 1 Meter = 3937 / 1200 Survey Feet

Transit

Transit is the most universal of surveying instruments primary use is for measurement or layout of horizontal and vertical angles also used to determine vertical and horizontal distance by stadia, prolonging straight lines, and low-order leveling.

3 Components of the Transit

1. 2. 3.

Alidade Upper part Horizontal limb Middle part Leveling-head assembly Lower part

Transit
Alidade

(upper part)

Circular cover plate w/2 level vials and is connected to a solid conical shaft called the inner spindle. Contains the vernier for the horizontal circle Also contains frames that support the telescope called STANDARDS Contains the vertical circle and its verniers, the compass box, the telescope and its level vial

Transit
Horizontal

Limb (middle part)

This is rigidly connected to a hollow conical shaft called the outer spindle (which holds the inner spindle) Also has the upper clamp, which allows the alidade to be clamped tight Also contains the horizontal circle

Transit

Leveling-Head Assembly (lower part)

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 4 leveling screws Bottom plate that screws into tripod Shifting device that allows transit to move to 3/8 ball that allows transit to tilt when being leveled The SPIDER 4-arm piece which holds the outer spindle Lower clamp allows rotation of outer spindle

 Telescope:

shorter

Similar to that of dumpy level, but

Parts objective, internal focusing lens, focusing wheel, X-hairs, & eyepiece
Scales:

horizontal plate or circle is usually graduated into 30 or 20 spaces with graduations from 0 to 360 in both directions
Circles are graduated automatically by machine and then scanned to ensure accuracy They are correct to with in 2 of arc

Verniers
Least

count = Lowest # of reading possible determines accuracy Least Count = (Value of smallest division on scale)/(# of divisions on vernier)
Scale Graduation
30 20 15 10

Vernier Divisions
30 40 45 60

Least Count
1 30 20 10

Verniers

3 Types of Verniers
1. Direct or single vernier reads only in one direction & must be set with graduations ahead of zero 2. Double vernier can be read clockwise or counterclockwiseonly is used at a time 3. Folded vernier avoids a ling vernier plate

of the graduations are placed on each side of the index mark Use is not justified because it is likely to cause errors

Verniers
The

vernier is always read in the same direction from zero as the numbering of the circle, i.e. the direction of the increasing angles Typical mistakes in reading verniers result from
1.Not using magnifying glass 2.Reading in the wrong direction from zero, or on the wrong side of a double vernier 3.Failing to determine the least count correctly 4. Omitting 10, 15, 20, 30 when the index is beyond those marks

Properties of the Transit

1.

Designed to have proper balance between:

2. 3.

Average length of sight of 300 assumed in design Specifications of typical 1 gun:

Magnification and resolution of the telescope Least count of the vernier and sensitivity of the plate and telescope bubbles

Magnification 18 to 28X Field of view - 1 to 130 Minimum focus 5 to 7 X-hairs usually are + with stadia lines above and below The transit is a repeating instrument because angles are measured by repetition and the total is added on the plate
Advantages

1. Better accuracy obtained through averaging 2. Disclosure of errors by comparing values of the single and multiple readings

of this:

Handling the Transit

Hints

on handling and setting-up the transit

Pick up transit by leveling head and standards When carrying the transit, have telescope locked in position perpendicular to the leveling head with objective lens down When setting-up, keep tripod head level and bring plumb bob to within of point to be set over, then loosen leveling screws enough to enable you to move transit on plate, then move transit until it is over the point

Operation of Transit
B

9 Steps

1. Set up over point B and level it. Loosen both motions 2. Set up the plates to read 0 and tighten the upper clamp. (Upper and lower plates are locked together) 3. Bring Vernier to exactly 0 using upper tangent screw and magnifying glass. 4. Sight on point A and set vertical X-hair in center of point, by rotating transit 5. Tighten the lower clamp and entire transit is locked in 6. Set X-hair exactly on BS point A using the lower tangent screws. At this point the vernier is on 000 and the Xhairs are on BS

Operation of Transit
B

7. Loosen the upper clamp, turn instrument to right until you are near pt. C. Tighten the upper clamp 8. Set vertical X-hair exactly on pt. C using the upper tangent screw. 9. Read on vernier

If repeating , loosen lower motion and again BS on A (using only lower motion), and then loosen upper motion to allow to accumulate.

If an instrument is in adjustment, leveled, exactly centered, and operated by an experienced observer under suitable conditions, there are only 2 sources for error.
1. 2. Pointing the telescope Reading the plates

Transit Field Notes

1d
0-90 90-180 180-270 270-360

Mean
(4d)4 (4d + 360) 4 (4d + 720) 4 (4d + 1080) 4

Use longest side for backsite

TOTAL STATIONS

TOTAL STATION SET UP

1. 2. 3. 4.

WHEN TOTAL STATION IS MOVED OR TRANSPORTED, IT MUST BE IN THE CASE!!!!!!!!

ESTABLISH TRIPOD OVER THE POINT. OPEN THE CASE AND REMOVE TOTAL STATION, PLACING IT ON THE HEAD OF THE TRIPOD AND ATTACH SECURELY WITH CENTER SCREW. CLOSE THE CASE. GRASP TWO TRIPOD LEGS AND LOOK THROUGH THE OPTICAL PLUMB, ADJUST THE LEGS SO THAT BULLSEYE IS OVER THE POINT (KEEP THE TRIPOD HEAD AS LEVEL AS POSSIBLE). UTILIZING THE TRIPOD LEG ADJUSTMENTS, LEVEL THE TOTAL STATION USING THE FISH-EYE BUBBLE. LOOSEN THE CENTER SCREW TO ADJUST THE TOTAL STATION EXACTLY OVER THE POINT IF NEEDED. COMPLETE LEVELING THE TOTAL STATION USING THE LEVEL VIAL. CHECK TO MAKE SURE YOU ARE STILL ON THE POINT.

5. 6.

7.
8.

TURNING ANGLES WITH TOTAL STATION

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

SIGHT ON THE BACKSIGHT UTILIZING THE HORIZONTAL ADJUSTMENT SCREW. ZERO SET THE INSTRUMENT (THIS PROVIDES AN INNITIAL READING OF 0 SECONDS. LOOSEN TANGENT SCREW AND ROTATE INSTRUMENT TO FORESIGHT. TIGHTEN TANGENT SCREW AND BRING CROSS HAIR EXACT ON TARGET WITH ADJUSTMENT SCREW. READ AND RECORD ANGLE AS DISPLAYED.

TO CLOSE THE HORIZON: 1. SIGHT ON FORESIGHT POINT FROM ABOVE AND ZERO SET INSTRUMENT. 2. ROTATE TO FORMER BACKSIGHT AND ADJUST INSTRUMENT TO EXACT. 3. READ AND RECORD ANGLE AS DISPLAYED.
ANGLE FROM DIRECT AND INDIRECT SHOULD EQUAL 360 DEGREES.

TOTAL STATION DISTANCE MEASUREMENT

1. 2.

POINT THE INSTRUMENT AT A PRISM (WHICH IS VERTICAL OVER THE POINT. PUSH THE MEASURE BUTTON AND RECORD THE DISTANCE.

YOU CAN MEASURE THE HORIZONTAL DISTANCE OR THE SLOPE DISTANCE, IT IS IMPORTANT THAT YOU NOTE WHICH IS BEING COLLECTED. 1. IF YOU ARE MEASURING THE SLOPE DISTANCE, THE ZENITH ANGLE MUST BE RECORDED TO ALLOW THE HORIZONTAL DISTANCE TO BE COMPUTED. 2. IF YOU ARE COLLECTING TOPOGRAPHIC DATA WITH ELEVATIONS, IT IS IMPORTANT THAT THE HEIGHT OF THE INSTRUMENT AND THE HEIGHT OF THE PRISM BE COLLECTED AND RECORDED.
THIS CAN ALSO BE SOLVED BY SETTING THE PRISM HEIGHT THE SAME AS THE INSTRUMENT HEIGHT.

TOTAL STATION RULES

1.

2. 3. 4.

5.

6.

NEVER POINT THE INSTRUMENT AT THE SUN, THIS CAN DAMAGE THE COMPONENTS OF THE INSTRUMENT AS WELL AS CAUSE IMMEDIATE BLINDNESS. NEVER MOVE OR TRANSPORT THE TOTAL STATION UNLESS IT IS IN THE CASE PROVIDED. DO NOT ATTEMPT TO ROTATE THE INSTRUMENT UNLESS THE TANGENT SCREW IS LOOSE. AVOID GETTING THE INSTRUMENT WET, IF IT DOES GET WET, WIPE IT DOWN AND ALLOW TO DRY IN A SAFE AREA BEFORE STORAGE. BATTERIES OF THE TOTAL STATION ARE NICAD AND THUS MUST BE CHARGED REGULARLY. AT LEAST ONCE PER MONTH, THE BATTERY SHOULD BE CYCLED. CARE SHOULD BE TAKEN AT ALL TIMES, THESE UNITS ARE EXPENSIVE ($8,000 - $45,000)

Angles and Determination of Direction

Angle difference in direction of 2 lines

Another way of explaining is the amount of rotation about a central point 3 kinds of Horizontal angles: Exterior ( to right); Interior; Deflection To turn an angle you need
A reference line Direction of turning Angular distance Degrees,

Angular Units

Radians
Grads

Circle divided into 360 degrees Each degree divided by 60 minutes Each minute divided into 60 seconds

minutes, seconds (sexagesimal system)

1 radian = 1/2 of a circle = 0.1592*360 = 571744. 8 1/400 of a circle or 05400 (100 gon = 90)

(Centesimal System) now called Gon

Angles and Determination of Direction

Angles turned in field must be accurate: 3X least count is max. error Check #1 Close horizon when turning If traverse closes: sum of the interior angles should equal the sum of
(N-2)X180, N = Number of sides
angles = (3-2) 180 = 180 4 angles = (4-2) 180 = 360 8 angles = (8-2) 180 = 1080 25 angles = (25-2) 180 = 4140
3

If an exterior angle exists, subtract it from 360 to obtain the interior Angular closure should be checked before leaving the field

Angles and Determination of Direction

If angular adjustment does not divide out equally:

1. 2.
3.

Do not go to decimal unless instrument reads to decimal Observe field notes for angles with poor closure or where problems turning angles existed. Apply excess to these angles evenly. If unable to view field notes or no apparent source, generally apply excess to angles with shortest sides
Bearing of a line is the acute horizontal angle between a reference meridian (North and South) and a line Azimuth of a line is the horizontal angle measured from the North meridian clockwise to the line

Bearings/Azimuths

Example
M L N

Angles and Determination of Direction

4 Point Comparison Bearing
1. Numeric Value 2. Method of Expressing 3. Direction 4. Position of 0 point 0-90 2 letters & number Clockwise & counterclockwise North and South

Azimuth
0-360 Number only Clockwise North

It is always very important to have your field sketch properly oriented

Angles and Determination of Direction

Rectangular Coordinates

Totally based on computation of right triangle North South Movement = Latitude = D X cos A East West Movement = Departure = D X sin A Latitude running North are +, South are Departure running East are +, West are

Angles and Determination of Direction

Basic Procedure
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Determine Latitude and Departure Sum Lat. and Departure to calc. closure Obtain balanced Lat. and Dept. (Compass Rule) Determine coordinates Once rectangular coordinates are known on point, their exact location is known with respect to all other points in the network

Example
B F A E

C D

Angles and Determination of Direction

Balancing Methods
1. Compass Rule: (Bowditch) Used when accuracy of and length measurement is equal

(Error Lat./Perimeter length) X Distance = Latitude Correction (Error Dept./Perimeter length) X Distance = Departure Correction

2.

Transit Rule: Used if angles are more accurate than distances (more accurate direction)

Correction Latitude (Side) = (Lat. Side/Sum all Lat.) X Lat. error Correction Departure (Side) = (Dept. Side/Sum all Dept.) X Dept. error

3.

4.

Crandall Method: Used when larger random error exists in linear measurements that angular. Directional adjustments from balancing are held fixed and distances are balanced by a weighted least squares procedure Least Squares: Based on the theory of probability. Angular and linear adjustments are made simultaneously. Hand methods are long and complex not often done. Computer adjustment through existing software make it feasible, which is why it is often used today

Area, Inverse, Intersection

Once rectangular coordinates are established on all points, the relationship to all other points is known. You can:
1. Determine area of all or any portion 2. Determine length and direction between any 2 points 3. Locate new points by intersection

Area, Inverse, Intersection

Area:

Method is area by cross multiplication

Using example from traverse lecture:

NA X EB + NB X EC + NC X ED + ND X EE + NE X EF + NF X EA = Sum N EA X NB + EB X NC + EC X ND + ED X NE + EE X NF + EF X NA = Sum E Difference in Sums/2 = Square feet Square feet/43560 = Acres Sum N = 294,119,678.8 Sum E = 293,663,353.6 456,325.2 / 2 = 228,162.6 ft2 = 5.24 Ac

A B C

10000.0000 10326.7981 9938.7277

5000.0000 5356.3614 5298.7122

D
E F A

9448.9156
9854.7405 10070.8565 10000.0000

4560.3990
4760.8417 4583.9559 5000.0000

Area, Inverse, Intersection

Example: Determine Area of A, D, E, F, A
A D E F A 10000.0000 5000.0000 9448.9156 9854.7405 10070.8565 10000.0000 4560.3990 4760.8417 4583.9559 5000.0000

N = 186,116,759.8 E = 185,971,439.3 145,320.5 / 2 = 72,660.25 ft2 = 1.67 Ac

Area, Inverse, Intersection

Inverse: With known coordinates of any two points on a system, you find the distance and direction between the two C D 9938.7277 9448.9156 489.8121 5298.7122 4560.3990 738.3132

To find the Inverse between 2 Points

1. Find difference in N & E of coordinates 2. Plot

3. 4. 5. 6.

Determine Determine Determine Determine

Use point you are going from 1st Plot longest side 1st

length using Pythagorean (a2 + b2 = c2) reference direction local using tan A = a/b line direction

Area, Inverse, Intersection

Example:

Determine direction and distance D-A

D A

9448.9156 10000.0000 551.0844

4560.3990 5000.0000 439.6010

Area, Inverse, Intersection

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Intersection: Determination of unknown point location with directions from two points known
Determine difference in coordinates Plot points and line projections Set up dual formulas (as Latitude and Departure) Solve for length Compute coordinate as sideshot C D 9938.7277 9448.9156 489.8121 5298.7122 4560.3990 738.3132

Area, Inverse, Intersection

Example:

What are the coordinates of the point of intersection of line C-F and D-A. Azimuth D-A = 383446. Coordinates of D: N = 9448.9156, E = 4560.3990

C F

9938.7277 10070.8565 132.1288

5298.7122 4583.9559 714.7563

Horizontal and Vertical Curves

Horizontal curves are the basis for most Right of Ways:

Go through formulas Angle at PC and PT are always 90 Given any 2 elements T, L, C, R, D; the remainder can be completed

Example: Horizontal curve, PC STA 201+00

D = 361500 R = 1200.00 T= L= C= Seg = PI STA = PT STA =

Horizontal and Vertical Curves

Vertical Curves Two major methods used to calculate vertical curves: Tangent offset and Equation of Parabola Information needed:

1. 2. 3.

Grade or slope on each side of curve Elevation and station of PVI Curve length (Horizontal distance PVC PVT)

Horizontal and Vertical Curves

Tangent Offset Method

Procedure:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Compute the elevation of the PVC and PVT Compute the elevation of Chord midpoint Compute offset to curve at midpoint Determine total number of stations covered Determine tangent elevations at stations Compute curve offset at stations Combine data and determine vertical curve elevations

Horizontal and Vertical Curves

Equation of Parabola Method

Equation: r = g2 - g1 / L

Procedure:

g1 = initial grade r = change in grade/sta. g2 = final grade L = length of curve in stations

1. Compute PVC and PVT elevations 2. Calculate total change in grade/station 3. Insert data to chart and compute final curve elevations

To find the elevation at the high point or low point, find the station at which it fall and include that -g1 station in the elevation computations xpt = The equation gives the distance from the PVC in stations

Leveling

Leveling is the determination of the elevation of a point or difference between points referenced to some datum

Terms:
1. Datum any level surface to which elevations are referenced 2. Mean Sea Level (MSL) the average height of the surface of the sea for all stages of the tide over a 19 year period at 26 tide stations along Pacific, Atlantic and Gulf 3. National Geodetic Vertical Datum nationwide reference surface for elevations throughout the U.S. made available by National Geodetic Survey (NGS), based on 1929 adjustment. 4. Benchmark relatively permanent object bearing a marked point whose elevation above or below an adopted datum.

Leveling
Most

often Mean Sea Level is used

MSL varies along the coasts Pacific is almost 2 higher than Atlantic and Gulf
U.S.

System: National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929

Has been used as reference for extensive network of BMs BMs are periodically adjusted as to elevation
Best

to check with USGS or NGS for current elevation of a BM and also best to check between two known BMs to verify elevation difference.

Leveling

The level surface parallels the curvature of the earth a level line is a curved line, normal () at all points to plumbline
Line of sight is only normal at point of instrument A line with a sight distance of 1 mile using the earths radius as 3959 mile, curvature change is 0.667 feet.

Refraction of line of sight of level is downward by a small amount The combined curvature & refraction amounts for short distances (normal sight dist. for levels) are:
100 200 300 500 = = = = 0.0002 0.0008 0.0019 0.0052 Value is small for most instances can be neglected

Leveling

Most common leveling instrument today is the Automatic or Self-leveling level has an internal compensator that automatically provides a horizontal line of sight and maintains this through gravity (prism hanging on pendulum) Differential Leveling: (Spirit Leveling) Most common type today

1.
2. 3. 4.

Determine the difference in elevation using a horizontal line of sight and readings on graduated rod Circuit must be closed on BM of origin or on BM of equal accuracy Process:
Reading on point of known elevation (BS) BS reading + BM elevation = HI Reading on point of unknown elevation (FS) HI FS = elevation of new point

Leveling

Systematic Error in Leveling

Inclination of line of sight due to curvature of earth and refraction generally very minimal due to short sights Inclination due to maladjustment of instrument
Both can be alleviated by equalizing length of BS and FS legs Usually ignored except in very precise work Would use same process as tape correction

1.
2.

3.

Changes in scale of rod due to temperature

4.

Rod not held plumb

Minimized by carefully plumbing the rod or more commonly known as Rocking the Rod and taking the lowest reading

Leveling
1.

Set 2 marks at 300 apart, also mark center point in a relatively flat area 2. Set level at midpoint and take readings at each end 3. Determine difference in readings (difference in elevation) 4. Move level to one end and setup so that level is just in front of rod on point 5. Read rod by looking backward through scope (X-hair not visible), hold pencil on rod to determine reading 6. Read rod at other end in normal manner 7. Difference in readings should equal #3 8. If values are not equal, there is error
Most instruments have adjustment screws Adjust and repeat test as a check

Peg Test

Seven Basic Rules of Differential Leveling

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

7.

Balance length of BS and FS (300 max) Make sure gun is level and pendulum free Turn through all BMs Give complete description of BMs and TBMs Have rod rocked Make sure turning points are solid Close all circuits on BM of same degree of accuracy

Other Random Errors

Incorrect rod reading most common viewing foot number above and recording it 2. Parallax having the X-hair not properly focused 3. Heat Waves limit shot lengths
1.

Field Notes
STA BS HI FS ELEV

Sum

BS Sum FS = Difference of Elevation

Closure Error
Difference

in measured elevation and know elevation Correction factor = closure / # turns

Error = 0.09 Turns = 12
If

Correction = 0.0075 / turn

TBMs set, break circuit into sections Figure correction factor the same Figure correction by taking CF X # turns in section

Precise Leveling

Precise Leveling Accuracy obtained by quality of instruments and care taken in the field High quality automatic levels are utilized Level rods are equipped with rod level, rod shoe (to allow better setting on BMs); scale (on rod) is made of invar steel (not affected by temp generally called Invar Rod) Reading either taken by optical micrometer or a process called 3-wire leveling is used (all 3 wire are read and averaged)
Optical micrometer: line of sight deflected by turning micrometer screw to read subdivision on rod.
Rod

division is read as normal & then fractional reading taken from micrometer screw, thus on normal rod readings to 0.0001 are possible

Topographic Surveying
Topographic

surveying is the process of determining the positions, on the earths surface, of the natural, and artificial features of a given locality and of determining the configuration of the terrain.
Planimetry location of features Topography configuration of the ground
Both

produce a topographic map which shows the true distance between objects & their elevations above a given datum Topos can be done by field methods, or by photogrammetric methods. (Photo also requires some field work) Topo map is 1st step in a construction project

Topographic Surveying
Scale

and accuracy: Both depend on what used for Method of Representing:

Most common is Contour Line Imaginary line on surface of the earth passing through points that have equal elevation Contour Interval Vertical distance between lines
Topo map with contour lines shows elevation of points on ground & shapes of topographic features (hills, etc.) USGS Topo 10 or 20 contour intercal Subdivision 2 or 4

Index Contour every 5th contour drawn heavier on maps Slopes & X-sections can be obtained from contours

Topographic Surveying
Interpolating can find elevation of any point or find contour line with known elevation of point Contour lines that close represent either a hill or depression and can be represented as:

Marks

are called hatchures (used most in depressions)

Characteristics of Contours
1.

2. 3.

4.
5.

Each contour must close upon itself with within a map or outside its borders a contour line cannot end on a map except at the edge Contours do not cross or meet except in caves, cliffs & vertical walls where they can meet Contour lines crossing streams form Vs pointing upstream Contour lines crossing a ridge form Us pointing down the ridge Contour lines tend to parallel streams

Characteristics of Contours
Contour lines are uniformly spaced on uniform slopes 7. Horizontal spacing between contour lines indicated steepness of slope on ground 8. Contours are generally perpendicular to direction of maximum slope 9. Contours can never branch into 2 contours of the same elevation
6.

Field Methods of Topos

Factors That Influence Method 1. Scale of map 2. Contour interval 3. Type of terrain 4. Nature of project 5. Equipment available 6. Required accuracy 7. Existing control 8. Extent of area to be mapped

Field Methods of Topos

Methods: 1. Cross section railroad of highway 2. Trace contour drainage or impoundments 3. Grid small areas 4. Controlling point large area, plane table 5. Theodolite & EDM - radial

Field Methods of Topos

Cross Section Method (Plus Offset): Equipment used: Transit, tape, and level 1. Establish horizontal control traverse between control points stakes set at cross section intervals 2. Run profile of traverse line 3. Take cross section 4. Locate planimetric features from traverse line

Field Methods of Topos

Trace Contour: 1. Contour is by traverse 2. Establish elevation of each station 3. Contour elevation established and is then followed by rodperson 4. Contour elevation is marked, then tied to traverse line by plus-offset
Most accurate and expensive work Elevation of reservoir water line 2 transit use

Field Methods of Topos

Grid Method: 1. Establish baselines 2. Estimate grid of uniform size smaller grid = more accurate 3. Number grid 4. Shoot elevation at each point 5. Tie existing objects to grid points

Field Methods of Topos

Controlling Point Method: (old and sketched in field) 1. Determine position & elevation of pre-selected control points 2. Depends greatly on experience & judgment of people doing work 3. Required traverse of area (CPs) 4. Locations are made & elevations obtained along control points then intermittent topo sketched in

Field Methods of Topos

Theodolite & EDM (Radial)
Replaces tacheometry (stadia)

Establish control points (horizontal and elevation) 2. Shoot locations and turn vertical angles 3. Used for large areas
1.

Field Methods of Topos

Common mistakes in topo surveys: 1. Improper selection of contour interval 2. Unsatisfactory equipment or field method for the particular survey and terrain conditions 3. Insufficient horizontal and vertical control of suitable precision 4. Omission of some topographic details

Mine Surveying

1. 2. 3.

Points are on roof of mine Reasons needed

Location in respect to boundaries Location in respect to other shafts Accurate maps (above and below ground) Quantities

4.

Equipment and Terms

Spad Beams that you hold plumb bob from Bracket Mounting instrument from timber supports Trivet Tripod thats about 1 tall Gyroscope Locate north Laser vertical collimator located point at top of vertical shaft platform Plumb shaft Using piano wire then wiggle in at bottom

Global Positioning Systems (GPS)

Developed in early 1980 s (Dept. of Defense) Made up of 26 satellites (24 functioning & 2 spares) Each satellite is 20,000 km high (off Earths surface) Each satellite is in a fixed position Minimum of 3 satellites needed, but 4-5 preferred Need satellites at least 15 above horizon Locate positions on Earth by distance-distance intersection Need 2-3 receivers ($80-$100K per system) Most accurate with double occupancy (no other checks) Differential GPS one receiver on known point, other receiver on unknowns

Global Positioning Systems (GPS)

Biggest advantage Distance and direction in-between 2 points without being seen Downfalls/Limitations of GPS Multipath bouncing off of walls of buildings Blocked signals clouds, trees, etc. Sunspot defraction from atmosphere DOP (Delusion of Position) bad satellite position Set up error not set up exactly over point (human error most common)

Global Positioning Systems (GPS)

Methods Static observation time is at least an hour
Ideally set points in triangular fashion Accuracy 1/10 million
RTK

(Real Time Kinematic) stand for 30-60 seconds minimum

Base receivers transmission, does corrections, sends corrections to receivers Limitations limitation of transmitter signal

Geographic Information Systems (GIS)

GIS

are computer programs that allow users to store, retrieve, manipulate, analyze and display spatial data Spatial Data (Geographic data) any data that represents information about the Earth GIS components
Recent definitions of GIS suggest that is consists of: 1. Hardware (computer and operating system) Geographic/Spatial 2. Software 3. Data Non-Geographic/Aspatial/Attribute 4. Human Operators and Institutional Infrastructure

GIS Data Structures

Vector Made up of points, lines, and polygons

GIS Data Structures

Raster

(Grids) Made up of pixels of computer screen

GIS Data Structures

DEM

(Digital Elevation Model) Digital terrain representation technique, where elevation values are stored in raster cells

Future of Surveying
Major

advances in future

Remote Sensing (Government and Military) Arial Photographs

Design

Professions

Every 10 years, must justify to Legislature that need for our license exists Surveyor have ULTIMATE liability Standards Laws Continuing Education Enough points every 2 years