Ch-6 Differential Analysis of Fluid Flow

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ME 311: Fluid Mechanics

Differential Analysis

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Course Outline
Navier-Stokes equations for Laminar Flow
Characterization of Laminar and Turbulent Flow
Reynold Stresses
Boundary layer theory
Flow over flat plate and in pipes
Lift and Drag Forces
Applying energy, momentum and continuity
equations of Thermofluids to turbo-machinery,
Performance of Turbo-Machines.
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Recommended Text Books
1 Fundamentals of Fluid
Mechanics
Munson, Young
& Okiishi
2 Mechanics of Fluids B. S. Massey
3. Fluid Mechanics Victor L. Streeter
and E. Benjamin
Wylie
4. Mechanics of Fluids Merle C. Potter;
David C. Wiggert
5 Introduction to Fluid
Mechanics
Robert W. Fox ;
Alan T.
McDonald
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Course Composition

60 lectures (including monthly tests and
quiz)

minimum 03 quiz (may change the
weighting) total 10%

minimum 03 Monthly tests (may change the
weighting) total 30%

One final 50 %

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6
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General Classroom Rules
Mutual respect (golden rule)
Punctuality
Minimal disturbance to fellow students and teacher
Turn off your cell phone
No chewing /tobacco
Questions are encouraged
No question is stupid
Your question is valuable to others in learning
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My Preference
Learning happens both inside and outside
the classroom
Inside classroom: interactive, participation
Outside classroom: office hours, review
sessions

Welcome feedback anytime during the
quarter (class format/materials/pace)

My home phone number is 021-4080881.

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Outline
Introduction
Kinematics Review
Conservation of Mass
Stream Function
Linear Momentum
Inviscid Flow
Viscous Flows
Navier-Stokes Equations
Exact Solutions
Intro. to Computational Fluid Dynamics
Examples
10
Differential Analysis: Introduction
Some problems require more detailed analysis.
We apply the analysis to an infinitesimal control
volume or at a point.
The governing equations are differential equations
and provide detailed analysis.
Around only 80 exact solutions to the governing
differential equations.
We look to simplifying assumptions to solve the
equations.
Numerical methods provide another avenue for
solution (Computational Fluid Dynamics)
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Kinematic Velocity Field
Continuum Hypothesis: the flow is made of tightly packed fluid particles that
interact with each other. Each particle consists of numerous molecules, and we
can describe velocity, acceleration, pressure, and density of these particles at a
given time.
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Kinematic Acceleration Field
Lagrangian Frame:
Eulerian Frame: we describe the acceleration in terms of position and time
without following an individual particle. This is analogous to describing the
velocity field in terms of space and time.
A fluid particle can accelerate due to a change in velocity in time (unsteady)
or in space (moving to a place with a greater velocity).
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Kinematic Acceleration Field: Material (Substantial) Derivative
time dependence
spatial dependence
We note:
Then, substituting:
The above is good for any fluid particle, so we drop A:
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Kinematic Acceleration Field: Material (Substantial) Derivative
Writing out these terms in vector components:
x-direction:
y-direction:
z-direction:
Writing these results in short-hand:
where,
k
z
j
y
i
x

()
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
= V ,
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Kinematics: Deformation of a Fluid Element
General deformation of fluid element is rather complex, however, we can
break the different types of deformation or movement into a
superposition of each type.
Linear Motion
Rotational Motion
Linear deformation
Angular Deformation
General
Motion
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Kinematics: Linear Motion and Deformation
Linear Motion/Translation due to u and v velocity:
Simplest form of motion the element
moves as a solid body. Unlikely to be the
only affect as we see velocity gradients in
the fluid.
Deformation: Velocity gradients can cause deformation, stretching
resulting in a change in volume of the fluid element.
Rate of Change for one direction:
For all 3 directions:
The shape does not change,
linear deformation
The linear deformation is zero for incompressible fluids.
= 0
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Kinematics: Angular Motion and Deformation
Angular Motion/Rotation:
Angular Motion results from
cross derivatives.
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The rotation of the element about the z-axis is the average of the angular
velocities :
Likewise, about the y-axis, and the x-axis:
Counterclockwise rotation is considered positive.
and
The three components gives the rotation vector:
Using vector identities, we note, the rotation vector is one-half the curl of the
velocity vector:
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The definition, then of the vector operation is the following:
The vorticity is twice the angular rotation:
Vorticity is used to describe the rotational characteristics of a fluid.
The fluid only rotates as an undeformed block when
,
otherwise, the rotation also deforms the body.
If , then there is no rotation, and the flow is said to be irrotational.
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Angular deformation:
The associated rotation gives rise to angular deformation, which results in the
change in shape of the element
Shearing Strain:
Rate of Shearing Strain:
If , the rate of shearing strain is zero.
The rate of angular deformation is related to the shear stress.
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Conservation of Mass: Cartesian Coordinates
System: Control Volume:
Now apply to an infinitesimal control volume:
For an infinitesimal control volume:
Now, we look at the mass flux in the x-direction:
Out: In:
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Net rate of mass in the outflow y-direction:
Net rate of mass in the outflow z-direction:
Net rate of mass in the outflow x-direction:
Net rate of mass flow for all directions:
+
Now, combining the two parts for the infinitesimal control volume:
= 0
Divide out
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Finally, the differential form of the equation for Conservation of Mass:
a.k.a. The Continuity Equation
In vector notation, the equation is the following:
If the flow is steady and compressible:
If the flow is steady and incompressible:
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Conservation of Mass: Cylindrical-Polar Coordinates
If the flow is steady and compressible:
If the flow is steady and incompressible:
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Conservation of Mass: Stream Functions
Stream Functions are defined for steady, incompressible, two-dimensional flow.
Continuity:
Then, we define the stream functions as follows:
Now, substitute the stream function into continuity:
It satisfies the continuity condition.
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Advantages of working with stream function
The slope at any point along a streamline:
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Streamlines are constant, thus d+ = 0:
Now, calculate the volumetric flow rate
between streamlines:
Mass flow rate per unit width
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In cylindrical coordinates:
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Conservation of Linear Momentum
P is linear momentum,
System:
Control
Volume:
We could apply either approach to find the differential form. It turns out the System
approach is better as we dont bound the mass, and allow a differential mass.
By system approach,
om is constant.
If we apply the control volume approach to an infinitesimal control volume, we
would end up with the same result.
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Conservation of Linear Momentum: Forces Descriptions
Body forces or surface forces act on the differential element: surface forces act
on the surface of the element while body forces are distributed throughout the
element (weight is the only body force we are concerned with).
Body Forces:
Surface Forces:
Normal Stress:
Shear Stress:
6.3.1 Description of Forces Acting on the Differential Element
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Looking at the various sides of the differential element, we must use
subscripts to indicate the shear and normal stresses (shown for an x-face).
The first subscript indicates the direction normal to the plane on which the stress
acts and the second subscript the direction
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We now can express the surface forces
acting on a small cubical element of
fluid in terms of the stresses acting on
the faces of the element as shown in
Fig.
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Now, the surface forces acting on a small cubicle element in each
direction.
Then the total forces:
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Conservation of Linear Momentum: Equations of Motion
Now, we write both sides of the equation in the system approach:
In components:
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Conservation of Linear Momentum: Equations of Motion
Writing out the terms for the Generalize Equation of Motion:
The motion is rather complex.
Material derivative for a, see 6.3a,b,c Force Terms
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the pressure at a point in a fluid at rest, or in motion, is independent of
direction as long as there are no shearing stresses present. This important
result is known as Pascals law named in honor of Blaise Pascal 16231662,
a French mathematician who made important contributions in the field of
hydrostatics. In Chapter 6 it will be shown that for moving fluids in which
there is relative motion between particles so that shearing stresses develop
the normal stress at a point, which corresponds to pressure in fluids at rest,
is not necessarily the same in all directions. In such cases the pressure is
defined as the average of any three mutually perpendicular normal stresses
at the point.
Inviscid Flow
Recall from sec 2.1

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Inviscid Flow
An inviscid flow is a flow in which viscosity effects or shearing effects
become negligible.
If this is the case,
And, we define
A compressive force give a positive pressure.
The equations of motion for this type of flow then becomes the following:
Eulers
Equations
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Inviscid Flow: Eulers Equations
Leonhard Euler
(1707 1783)
Famous Swiss mathematician who pioneered work on
the relationship between pressure and flow.
In vector notation Eulers Equation:
The above equation, though simpler than the generalized equations,
are still highly non-linear partial differential equations:
There is no general method of solving these equations for an analytical solution.
The Eulers equation, for special situations can lead to some useful
information about inviscid flow fields.
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Surface Stress Terms for a General Newtonian Fluid
General Stress Elements:
Normal Stresses:
Shear Stresses:
Note,
and is known as the second viscosity coefficient
is the viscosity of the fluid and for the general form is allowed to be non-constant.
xx xx
p t o + =
yy yy
p t o + =
zz zz
p t o + =
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Viscous Flows: Surface Stress Terms
Now, we allow viscosity effects for an incompressible Newtonian Fluid:
Normal Stresses:
Shear Stresses:
Cartesian
Coordinates:
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Viscous Flows: Surface Stress Terms
Normal Stresses:
Shear Stresses:
Cylindrical
Coordinates:
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Viscous Flows: Navier-Stokes Equations
Now plugging the stresses into the differential
equations of motion for incompressible flow give
Navier-Stokes Equations:
French Mathematician, L. M. H. Navier (1758-1836) and
English Mathematician Sir G. G. Stokes (1819-1903)
formulated the Navier-Stokes Equations by including
viscous effects in the equations of motion.
L. M. H. Navier
(1758-1836)
Sir G. G. Stokes
(1819-1903)
(x direction)
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Viscous Flows: Navier Stokes Equations
Local Acceleration Advective Acceleration
(non-linear terms)
Pressure term
Weight term
Viscous terms
Terms in the x-direction:
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The governing equations can be written in cylindrical coordinates as well:
(r-direction)
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There are very few exact solutions to Navier-Stokes Equations, maybe a
total of 80 that fall into 8 categories. The Navier-Stokes equations are
highly non-linear and are difficult to solve.
Some simple exact solutions presented in the text are the following:
1. Steady, Laminar Flow Between Fixed Parallel Plates
2. Couette Flow
3. Steady, Laminar Flow in Circular Tubes
4. Steady, Axial Laminar Flow in an Annulus
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Viscous Flows: Exact Solutions/Parallel Plate Flow
Assumptions:
1. Plates are infinite and parallel/horizontal
2. The flow is steady and laminar
3. Fluid flows 2D, in the x-direction only u=u(y)
only, v and w = 0
4. Fully develop 5. Incompressible
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4
Assumptions:
1. Plates are infinite and parallel/horizontal
2. The flow is steady and laminar
3. Fluid flows 2D, in the x-direction only u=u(y)
only, v and w = 0
4. Fully develop
5. 5. Incompressible
3 2
2
2
1
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
3
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Navier-Stokes Equations Simplify Considerably:
Applying Boundary conditions (no-slip conditions at y = h) and solve:
The pressure gradient must be specified and is
typically constant in this flow! The sign is
negative.
(Integrate Twice)
3 3
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Solution is Parabolic:
Can determine Volumetric Flow Rate:
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Navier-Stokes Equations Simplify Considerably:
Applying Boundary conditions (no-slip conditions at y = h) and solve:
The pressure gradient must be specified and is
typically constant in this flow! The sign is
negative.
(Integrate Twice)
3 3
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Quadratic velocity profile for flow in a channel
Substituting the values for A and B into the previous
equation gives the quadratic equation:
( )
2
1
2
dp
u y yc
dx
=
For a long, straight channel, of length l, p decreases
with length at a constant rate, so
dp p
dx l
A
=
( )
2
1
2
p
u y yc
l
A
=
52
Graph of velocity profile
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
y
u
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Volume flow rate
To calculate the volume flow rate, integrate from y=0 to y=c
y=0
y=c
dy
dq udy = ( )
2
0
2
c
p
q yc y dy
l
A
=
}
3
12
c p
q
l
A
=
per unit width (z direction)
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Maximum and mean velocity
Max velocity occurs at y=c/2, the centre of the channel
2
max
8
c p
u
l
A
=
Mean velocity is gained by dividing the flow rate by the
channel width
/ u q c =
2
max
2
12 3
c p
u u
l
A
| |
= =
|
\ .
55
Viscous Flows: Exact Solutions/Couette Flow
Again we simplify Navier-Stokes Equations:
Same assumptions a before except the condition at
the upper boundary is u(b) = U.
Solving,
If there is no Pressure Gradient:
Define,
Determines effects of
pressure gradient
Dimensionless,
56
Viscous Flows: Exact Solutions/Pipe Flow
Let us see the simplification steps, PTO
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58
59
60
61
Navier-Stokes
Note that exactly the same result for the velocity
distribution could be derived by solving the Navier-
Stokes equations in radial coordinates.
62
Cylindrical Coordinates
In cylindrical coordinates (r,u,z) the
continuity equation is:

0
1 ) ( 1
=
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
z
v v
r r
rv
r
z r
u
u
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The Navier-Stokes equation in the r-direction is:

r
z r r
r
z
r r
r
r
g
z
v v
r
v
r r
rv
r r r
p
z
v
v
r
v v
r
v
r
v
v
t
v
u u
u
u u
+
(
c
c
+
c
c
c
c
+
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
c
c
+
c
c
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
2
2
2 2
2
2
2
2 1 ) ( 1
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The Navier-Stokes equation in the u-direction is:

u
u u u
u u u u u u
u u
u
u
g
z
v v
r
v
r r
rv
r r
p
r
z
v
v
r
v v v
r
v
r
v
v
t
v
r
z
r
r
+
(
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
c
c
+
c
c
=
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+ +
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
2
2
2 2
2
2
2 1 ) ( 1 1
65
The Navier-Stokes equation in the z-direction is:

z
z z z
z
z
z z
r
z
g
z
v v
r r
v
r
r r z
p
z
v
v
v
r
v
r
v
v
t
v
u
+
(
c
c
+
c
c
+
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
c
c
+
c
c
=
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
2
2
2
2
2
1 1
66
We will return to the pipe flow problem from the start of
the lecture and solve it using the Navier-Stokes
equations.

Continuity:

0
0
=
=
u
v
v
r
0
1 ) ( 1
=
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
z
v v
r r
rv
r
z r
u
u
0 0
67
r-direction Navier-Stokes:
0
2 1 ) ( 1
2
2
2
2
2 2
2
2
2
=
c
c
=
c
c
+
(
c
c
+
c
c
c
c
+
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
c
c
+
c
c
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
z
v
r
p
g
z
v v
r
v
r r
rv
r r r
p
z
v
v
r
v v
r
v
r
v
v
t
v
z
r
z r r
r
z
r r
r
r
u u
u
u u
68
u-direction Navier-Stokes:
0
2 1 ) ( 1 1
2
2
2 2
2
2
=
c
c
+
(
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
c
c
+
c
c
=
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+ +
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
u
u u
u
u
u
u u u
u u u u u u
p
g
z
v v
r
v
r r
rv
r r
p
r
z
v
v
r
v v v
r
v
r
v
v
t
v
r
z
r
r
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z-direction Navier-Stokes
z
z
z
z z z
z
z
z z
r
z
g
r
v
r
r r z
p
g
z
v v
r r
v
r
r r z
p
z
v
v
v
r
v
r
v
v
t
v
u
+
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
c
c
=
c
c
+
(
c
c
+
c
c
+
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
c
c
+
c
c
=
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
2
2
2
2
2
1 1
70
Integrate:
2
2
1
1
1
2
4
0 0
2
2
c
r
g
L
p p
v
r at f inite
r
v
keep to c
r
v
r
c r
g
L
p p
r
v
r c
r
g
L
p p
g
r
v
r
r r z
p
z
o L
z
z
z
z
o L
z
z
o L
z
z
+
|
.
|
\
|

=
=
c
c
=
c
c
= +
|
.
|
\
|

c
c
= +
|
.
|
\
|

+
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
c
c
=
c
c
71
Solving the equations with the no slip
conditions applied at r = R (the walls of the
pipe).
Parabolic Velocity Profile
72
The volumetric flow rate:
The mean velocity:
Pressure drop per length of pipe:
The maximum velocity:
Non-Dimensional velocity profile:
For Laminar Flow:
Substituing Q,
73
Conservation of Energy
The energy equation is developed similar to the momentum equation for an
infinitesimal control volume.
74
The energy equation is developed similar to the momentum equation for an
infinitesimal control volume.
(Heat and Work)
Internal
Kinetic
Potential
(Time rate of change
following the particle)
Differentiate:
To get the L.H.S:
Now for the R.H.S., define the fluid properties of Heat and Work:
Heat Conduction into the element, Fouriers Law
Heat per Unit Area
Heat:
75
Now, we do a control volume analysis on our control element:
Heat Flow into the left x-face of the element
Heat Flow out of the right x-face of the element
The above can be written for all six faces of the cube with the net result
between the in and out:
The net heat flow is transferred to the element, neglecting production terms
Heat: Heat Conduction into the element, Fouriers Law
Heat per Unit Area
76
Work: Work is done on the element per unit area.
on the left x-face
on the right x-face
We can do the same for the other faces, and the net rate of work done is:
In condensed form:
77
We can rewrite the equation using and identity:
We note, then, that from the momentum equation:
Now, the rate of change of work is the following:
Kinetic Potential
=
Now, when we substitute work and heat back into the governing equation:
We note potential and kinetic energy portions cancelled on each side!
78
Now, we can split the stress tensor into pressure and viscous terms:
Using continuity, we can rewrite the pressure term:
Now, rewriting the Conservation of Energy:
Noting, the definition of fluid enthalpy:
And, defining the dissipation function:
This term always takes energy from the flow!
79
Writing out the terms of Viscous Dissipation for a Newtonian Fluid:
Now, with the substitutions, the energy equation take the following form:
We note,
80
Now, lets assume the flow is incompressible:
Enthalpy:
Then,
If the flow velocity is low relative to Heat Transfer then terms of order
U disappear.
| is the thermal expansion coefficient, for a
perfect gas the second term goes to zero!
If, we assume constant thermal conductivity:
Heat Convection Equation
81
Summary of Governing Equations
Mass:
Momentum:
Energy:
Most General forms of the Equations:
Only Assumptions:
(1) The fluid is a continuum
(2) the particles are essentially in thermodynamics equilibrium
(3) Only body forces are gravity
(4) The Heat conduction follows Fouriers Law
(5) There are no internal heat sources.
82
Some general comments on the general form of the governing equations:
1. They are a coupled system of non-linear partial differential equations
you must solve energy, continuity, and linear momentum
simultaneously. No closed form solution exists!
2. For Newtonian flow, the shear and normal stresses can be written in
terms of the velocity gradients introducing no new unknowns.
3. There appear to be five equations and nine unknowns in the system of
equations: , , k, p, u, v, w, h, and T.
4. However, we note the following:

5. Now, we have five unknowns and five equations
) , ( ), , (
) , ( ), , (
T p k k T p h h
T p T p
= =
= =
83
In, general in Fluid Mechanics/CFD we often work with a simplified form of the
equations known as the Navier-Stokes Equations:
Additional Assumptions:
(1) The fluid is Newtonian
(2) Incompressible
(3) Constant properties (k, , )
where,
uncoupled equations: The fluid flow
can be solved independent of the Heat
Transfer
84
Some general comments on the Navier-Stokes governing equations:
1. They are non-linear partial differential equations which are uncoupled
in energy, and linear momentum. We can solve linear momentum and
continuity equations separately for the flow field without knowledge of
the Temperature field (4 Equations, 4 unknowns, u, v, w, p).
2. For Newtonian flow, the shear and normal stresses can be written in
terms of the velocity gradients introducing no new unknowns.
3. There appear to be five equations and 5 unknowns in the system of
equations: p, u, v, w, and T.
4. If the convective term disappears we have a linear solution.
5. If the convective term remains we have a non-linear solution.
6. The Energy equations relies on the solution of the flow field for its
solution.
Viscous Flow Equations
85
Summary of the Euler form of the governing equations: Inviscid Flow Equations
Linear Momentum:
Continuity and Energy are the same as for Navier-Stokes Equations
Some general remarks:
(1) The system of equations have five unknowns and five equations (same as
Navier-Stokes)
(2) Flow is Inviscid (frictionless), Pressure is the only normal stress, and
there are no shear stresses.
(3) A specialized case of inviscid flow is irrotational flow.
(4) The energy and momentum equations are also uncoupled in this set of
equations.
86
Physical Boundary Conditions
Types of Boundary Conditions:
Fluid/Gas-Solid Interface
Fluid-Fluid Interface
Gas-Fluid Interface
87
Physical Boundary Conditions
No Slip Condition:
At the fluid-boundary interface the velocities must be equal. If the boundary
is stationary, then u, v, w = 0.
The temperature of the fluid has to equal the temperature
of boundary at the interface.
Heat Flux in the fluid must equal the heat flux of the solid at the interface
At a solid boundary:
No Temperature Jump:
Equality of Heat Flux:
Examples:
Stationary Solid Boundary
Moving Boundary:
88
Computational Fluid Dynamics: Differential Analysis
Governing Equations:
Navier-Stokes:
Continuity:
The above equations can not be solved for most practical problems with analytical
methods so Computational Fluid Dynamics or experimental methods are
employed.
The numerical methods employed are the following:
1. Finite difference method
2. Finite element (finite volume) method
3. Boundary element method.
These methods provide a way of writing the governing equations in discrete
form that can be analyzed with a digital computer.
89
Computational Fluid Dynamics: Finite Element
These methods discretize the domain of the flow of interest (Finite Element
Method Shown):
The discrete governing equations are solved in every element. This
method often leads to 1000 to 10,000 elements with 50,000 equations
or more that are solved.
90
Computational Fluid Dynamics: Finite Difference
These methods discretize the domain of the flow of interest as well (Finite
Difference Method Shown):
Finite Difference Mesh:
Comparison between
Experiment and CFD
Analysis:
91
Computational Fluid Dynamics: Pitfalls
Numerical Solutions can diverge or exhibit unstable wiggles.
Finer grids may cause instability in the solution rather than better
results.
Large flow domains can be computationally intensive.
Turbulent flows have yet to be well described with CFD.
92
Inviscid Flow: Bernoulli Equation
Daniel Bernoulli
(1700-1782)
Earlier, we derived the Bernoulli Equation from a direct
application of Newtons Second Law applied to a fluid particle
along a streamline.
Now, we derive the equation from the Euler Equation
First assume steady state:
Select, the vertical direction as up, opposite gravity:
Use the vector identity:
Now, rewriting the Euler Equation:
Rearrange:
93
Inviscid Flow: Bernoulli Equation
Now, take the dot product with the differential length ds along a streamline:
ds and V are parrallel,
, is perpendicular to V, and thus to ds.
We note,
Now, combining the terms:
Integrate:
Then,
1) Inviscid flow
2) Steady flow
3) Incompressible flow
4) Along a streamline
94
Inviscid Flow: Irrotational Flow
Irrotational Flow: the vorticity of an irrotational flow is zero.
= 0
For a flow to be irrotational, each of the vorticity vector components must be
equal to zero.
The z-component:
The x-component lead to a similar result:
The y-component lead to a similar result:
Uniform flow will satisfy these conditions:
There are no shear forces in irrotational flow.
95
Inviscid Flow: Irrotational Flow
Example flows, where inviscid flow theory can be used:
Viscous Region
Inviscid Region
96
Inviscid Flow: Bernoulli Irrotational Flow
Recall, in the Bernoulli derivation,
However, for irrotational flow,
.
Thus, for irrotational flow, we do not have to follow a streamline.
Then,
1) Inviscid flow
2) Steady flow
3) Incompressible flow
4) Irrotational Flow
97
Some Example Problems
98
Some Example Problems
99
Potential Flow: Velocity Potential
For irrotational flow there exists a velocity potential:
Take one component of vorticity to show that the velocity potential is irrotational:
Substitute u and v components:
0
2
1
2 2
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
c c
c
c c
c
x y y x
| |
we could do this to show all vorticity components are zero.
Then, rewriting the u,v, and w components as a vector:
For an incompressible flow:
Then for incompressible irrotational flow:
And, the above equation is known as Laplaces Equation.
100
Potential Flow: Velocity Potential
Laplacian Operator in Cartesian Coordinates:
Laplacian Operator in Cylindrical Coordinates:
Where the gradient in cylindrical coordinates, the gradient operator,
Then,
May choose cylindrical
coordinates based on the
geometry of the flow problem,
i.e. pipe flow.
If a Potential Flow exists, with
appropriate boundary
conditions, the entire velocity
and pressure field can be
specified.
101
Potential Flow: Plane Potential Flows
Laplaces Equation is a Linear Partial Differential Equation, thus there are
know theories for solving these equations.
Furthermore, linear superposition of solutions is allowed:
where
and
are solutions to Laplaces equation
For simplicity, we consider 2D (planar) flows:
Cartesian:
Cylindrical:
We note that the stream functions also exist for 2D planar flows
Cartesian:
Cylindrical:
102
For irrotational, planar flow:
Now substitute the stream function:
Then,
Laplaces Equation
For plane, irrotational flow, we use either the potential or the stream function,
which both must satisfy Laplaces equations in two dimensions.
Lines of constant + are streamlines:
Now, the change of from one point (x, y) to a nearby point (x + dx, y + dy):
Along lines of constant | we have d| = 0,
0
103
Lines of constant | are called equipotential lines.
The equipotential lines are orthogonal to lines of constant +, streamlines
where they intersect.
The flow net consists of a family of streamlines and equipotential lines.
The combination of streamlines and equipotential lines are used to visualize a
graphical flow situation.
The velocity is inversely proportional
to the spacing between streamlines.
Velocity increases
along this streamline.
Velocity decreases
along this streamline.
104
Potential Flow: Uniform Flow
The simplest plane potential flow is a uniform flow in which the streamlines
are all parallel to each other.
Consider a uniform flow in the x-direction:
Integrate the two equations:
| = Ux + f(y) + C
| = f(x) + C
Matching the solution
C is an arbitrary constant, can be set to zero:
Now for the stream function solution:
Integrating the two equations similar
to above.
105
Potential Flow: Uniform Flow
For Uniform Flow in an Arbitrary direction, o:
106
Potential Flow: Source and Sink Flow
Source/Sink Flow is a purely radial flow.
Fluid is flowing radially from a line through
the origin perpendicular to the x-y plane.
Let m be the volume rate emanating from the line (per
unit length.
Then, to satisfy mass conservation:
Since the flow is purely radial:
Now, the velocity potential can be obtained:
Integrate
0
If m is positive, the flow is radially outward, source flow.
If m is negative, the flow is radially inward, sink flow.
m is the strength of the source or sink!
This potential flow does not exist at r = 0, the origin, because it is not a real flow, but can
approximate flows.
Source Flow:
107
Potential Flow: Source and Sink Flow
0
Now, obtain the stream function for the flow:
Then, integrate to obtain the solution:
The streamlines are radial lines and the equipotential
lines are concentric circles centered about the origin:
| lines
+ lines
108
Potential Flow: Vortex Flow
In vortex flow the streamlines are concentric circles, and the equipotential
lines are radial lines.
where K is a constant.
Solution:
The sign of K determines whether the flow rotates
clockwise or counterclockwise.
In this case,
,
The tangential velocity varies inversely with the distance from the origin. At the
origin it encounters a singularity becoming infinite.
| lines
+ lines
109
How can a vortex flow be irrotational?
Rotation refers to the orientation of a fluid element and not the path
followed by the element.
Irrotational Flow: Free Vortex
Rotational Flow: Forced Vortex
Traveling from A to B, consider two sticks
Initially, sticks aligned, one in the flow direction, and the
other perpendicular to the flow.
As they move from A to B the perpendicular-aligned
stick rotates clockwise, while the flow-aligned stick
rotates counter clockwise.
The average angular velocities cancel each other, thus, the
flow is irrotational.
Irrotational Flow:
Velocity
increases
inward.
Velocity
increases
outward.
Rotational Flow: Rigid Body Rotation
Initially, sticks aligned, one in the flow
direction, and the other perpendicular to the
flow.
As they move from A to B they sticks move
in a rigid body motion, and thus the flow is
rotational.
i.e., water
draining from
a bathtub
i.e., a rotating
tank filled with
fluid
110
A combined vortex flow is one in which there is a forced vortex at the core, and
a free vortex outside the core.
A Hurricane is
approximately a
combined vortex
Circulation is a quantity associated with vortex flow. It is defined as the line
integral of the tangential component of the velocity taken around a closed
curve in the flow field.
For irrotational flow the
circulation is generally
zero.
111
However, if there are singularities in the flow, the circulation is not zero if the
closed curve includes the singularity.
For the free vortex:
The circulation is non-zero and constant for the free vortex:
The velocity potential and the stream function can be rewritten in terms of the
circulation:
An example in which the closed surface circulation will be zero:
Beaker Vortex:
112
Potential Flow: Doublet Flow
Combination of a Equal Source and Sink Pair:
Rearrange and take tangent,
Note, the following:
Substituting the above expressions,
and
Then,
If a is small, then tangent of angle is approximated by the angle:
113
Potential Flow: Doublet Flow
Now, we obtain the doublet flow by letting the source and sink approach one
another, and letting the strength increase.
K is the strength of the doublet, and is
equal to ma/t.
is then constant.
The corresponding velocity potential then is the following:
Streamlines of a Doublet:
114
Potential Flow: Summary of Basic Flows
115
Potential Flow: Superposition of Basic Flows
Because Potential Flows are governed by linear partial differential equations,
the solutions can be combined in superposition.
Any streamline in an inviscid flow acts as solid boundary, such that there is no
flow through the boundary or streamline.
Thus, some of the basic velocity potentials or stream functions can be
combined to yield a streamline that represents a particular body shape.
The superposition representing a body can lead to describing the flow around
the body in detail.
116
Superposition of Potential Flows: Rankine Half-Body
The Rankine Half-Body is a combination of a source and a uniform flow.
Stream Function (cylindrical coordinates):
Potential Function (cylindrical coordinates):
There will be a stagnation point, somewhere along the negative x-axis where
the source and uniform flow cancel (u = t):
For the source only:
For the uniform flow:
Evaluate the radial velocity:
u cos U v
r
=
For u = t,
r
v U =
Then for a stagnation point, at x= r = b, by logic Vr =U
r
m
v
r
t 2
=
and
Or from uniform flow
mathematically
117
Now, the stagnation streamline can be defined by evaluating at r = b, and
u = t.
Now, we note that m/2 = tbU, so following this constant, streamline
gives the outline of the body:
Then,
describes the half-body outline.
So, the source and uniform flow can be used to describe an aerodynamic body.
The other streamlines can be obtained by setting constant and plotting:
Half-Body:
& we know
or
118
1. The width of the half-body:
,Total width =
2. The magnitude of the velocity at any point in the flow:
Noting,
and
Knowing, the velocity we can now determine the pressure field using the Bernoulli
Equation:
p
o
and U are the free stream (known) conditions and p & V are the properties around RHB.
3. Pressure
One unknown, one equation
119
Notes on this type of flow:
Provides useful information about the flow in the front part of streamlined body.
A practical example is a bridge pier or a strut placed in a uniform stream.
In a potential flow the tangent velocity is not zero at a boundary, it slips.
The flow slips due to a lack of viscosity (an approximation result).
At the boundary, the flow is not properly represented for a real flow.
Outside the boundary layer, the flow is a reasonable representation.
The pressure at the boundary is reasonably approximated with potential flow.
The boundary layer is too thin to cause much pressure variation.
120
Superposition of Potential Flows: Rankine Oval
Rankine Ovals are the combination a source, a sink and a uniform flow,
producing a closed body.
Equations describing the flow:
The body half-length
The body half-width
Iterative
Potential and Stream Function
121
Superposition of Potential Flows: Rankine Oval
Notes on this type of flow:
Provides useful information about the flow about a streamlined body.
At the boundary, the flow is not properly represented for a real flow.
Outside the boundary layer, the flow is a reasonable representation.
The pressure at the boundary is reasonably approximated with potential flow.
Only the pressure on the front of the body is accurate though.
Pressure outside the boundary is reasonably approximated.
122
Superposition of Potential Flows: Flow Around a Circular Cylinder
Combines a uniform flow and a doublet flow:
and
Then require that the stream function is constant for r = a, where a is the
radius of the circular cylinder:
K = Ua
2

Then,
and
Then the velocity components:
123
At the surface of the cylinder (r = a):
The maximum velocity occurs at the top and
bottom of the cylinder, magnitude of 2U.
124
Pressure distribution on a circular cylinder found with the Bernoulli equation
Then substituting for the surface velocity:
Theoretical and experimental agree
well on the front of the cylinder.

Flow separation on the back-half in the
real flow due to viscous effects causes
differences between the theory and
experiment.
125
The resultant force per unit force acting on the cylinder can be determined
by integrating the pressure over the surface (equate to lift and drag).
(Drag)
(Lift)
Substituting,
Evaluating the integrals:
Both drag and lift are predicted to be zero on fixed cylinder in a uniform flow?
Mathematically, this makes sense since the pressure distribution is
symmetric about cylinder, ahowever, in practice/experiment we see
substantial drag on a circular cylinder (dAlemberts Paradox, 1717-
1783).
Viscosity in real flows is the Culprit Again!
Jean le Rond
dAlembert
(1717-1783)

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ME 311: Fluid Mechanics

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