CHEMISTRY 101

Dr. Anvarhusein A. Isab

Sections 15, 16, 17
 Textbook: Zumdahl, 7th Edition
Office Location: Building 4, Room 261B
Office Hours: SMW: 9-11 AM, or by appointment
 Office Telephone: 2645
 Email: aisab@kfupm.edu.sa
 Website: http://faculty.kfupm.edu.sa/Chem/aisab

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 Students Responsibilities
1. Read and Study every detail in textbook.
2. Use the CD-ROM and internet educational tools
provided by Zumdahl and others.
3. Search for other sources of information: other
textbooks and references, internet, etc.
4. Solve and submit homeworks on time.
5. Homeworks are NOT enough to get a good
grade, students should solve all the problems
they can and also old exams.

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 Instructor’s Role
 To summarize important points of each chapter.
 Give directions on how and where to find information.
 Solve typical problems and give quizzes during recitation.
 Answer your questions during office hours.

In summary, I am a facilitator and NOT a teacher that will

feed information in your brains. You are responsible now
for your life.

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 Chapter 1

Chemical Foundations

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Steps in the Scientific Method
1. Observations
✔quantitative
✔qualitative
2. Formulating hypotheses
✔ possible explanation for the observation
3. Performing experiments
✔ gathering new information to decide
whether the hypothesis is valid

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 Outcomes Over the Long-Term
Theory (Model)
✔ A set of tested hypotheses that give an
overall explanation of some natural
phenomenon.
Natural Law
✔ The same observation applies to many
different systems
✔ Example - Law of Conservation of
Mass

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 Law and Theory
A law summarizes what happens;

A theory (model) is an attempt to

explain why it happens.

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Figure 1.4:
The
fundamental
steps of the
scientific
method.

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Figure 1.5:
The various
parts of the
scientific
method.

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 Nature of Measurement
Measurement - quantitative observation consisting of
2 parts
Part 1 - number
Part 2 - scale (unit)

Examples:
20 grams
6.63 × 10−34 Joule seconds

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 International System
(le Système International)

Based on metric system and units

derived from metric system.

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 The Fundamental SI Units

Physical Quantity Name Abbreviation

Mass kilogram kg
Length meter m
Time second s
Temperature Kelvin K
Electric Current Ampere A
Amount of Substance mole mol
Luminous Intensity candela cd
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Figure 1.6:
Measurement
of volume

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 Figure 1.7: Common types of laboratory
equipment used to measure liquid volume.

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Figure
1.8: An
electronic
analytical
balance.

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 Uncertainty in Measurement

A digit that must be estimated is called

uncertain. A measurement always has
some degree of uncertainty.

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Figure 1.9:
Measurement
20.16ml
of volume 20.17ml
using a buret. 20.15ml
The volume is 20.18ml

read at the
bottom of the
liquid curve ±0.01ml
(called the
meniscus).
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 Precision and Accuracy

Accuracy refers to the agreement of a

particular value with the true value.

Precision refers to the degree of agreement

among several elements of the same
quantity.

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Figure 1.10:
The results of
several dart
throws show
the difference
between
precise and
accurate.

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Illustrating the difference between “accuracy” and “precision”

Low accuracy, low precision Low accuracy, high precision

High accuracy, low precision High accuracy, high precision

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 Types of Error

Random Error (Indeterminate Error) -

measurement has an equal probability of
being high or low.

Systematic Error (Determinate Error) -

Occurs in the same direction each time (high
or low), often resulting from poor technique.

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Rules for Counting Significant Figures -
Overview

1. Nonzero integers
2. Zeros
✔ leading zeros
✔ captive zeros

✔ trailing zeros

3. Exact numbers

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 Rules for Counting Significant
Figures - Details

Nonzero integers always count as

significant figures.

3456 has
4 sig figs.

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 Rules for Counting Significant
Figures - Details
Zeros
❍ Leading zeros do not count as
significant figures.

0.0486 has
3 sig figs.

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 Rules for Counting Significant
Figures - Details
Zeros
❍ Captive zeros always count as
significant figures.

16.07 has
4 sig figs.

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 Rules for Counting Significant
Figures - Details

Zeros
❍ Trailing zeros are significant only
if the number contains a decimal
point.

9.300 has
4 sig figs.
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 Rules for Counting Significant
Figures - Details
Exact numbers have an infinite number of significant
figures.

Independent of measuring device:

1 apple, 10 students, 5 cars….

2πr The 2 is exact and 4/3 π r2 the 4 and 3 are exact

From Definition: 1 inch = 2.54 cm exactly

The 1 and 2.54 do not limit the significant figures

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100. has 3 sig. fig. = 1.00 x 102

100 has 1 sig. fig. = 1 x 102

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 Rules For Rounding
1. In a series of calculations, carry the extra digits
through to the final result, then round.
2. If the digit to be removed:
A. Is less than 5, then no change e.g. 1.33 rounded to 2
sig. fig = 1.3
B. Is equal or greater than 5, the preceding digit increase
by 1 e.g. 1.36 rounded to 2 sig. fig = 1.4

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 Rules for Significant Figures in
Mathematical Operations

Multiplication and Division: # sig figs in

the result equals the number in the least
precise measurement used in the calculation.

6.38 × 2.0 =
12.76 → 13 (2 sig figs)

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 Rules for Significant Figures in
Mathematical Operations

Addition and Subtraction: # decimal places

in the result equals the number of decimal
places in the least precise measurement.

6.8 + 11.934 =
18.734 → 18.7 (3 sig figs)

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Rules for Counting Significant Figures.

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 Dimensional Analysis
Proper use of “unit factors” leads to proper units in
your answer:

2.54 cm = 1 inch

1 inch/2.54 cm = 1 Unit factor

What is the length in inch of 2.85 cm pencil

2.85 (cm) x 1 (inch)/2.54(cm) = 2.85/2.54 = 1.12 in

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 Dimensional Analysis

1. Determine which unit conversion factor(s) are needed

2. Carry units through calculation
3. If all units cancel except for the desired unit(s), then the
problem was solved correctly.

How many mL are in 1.63 L?

1 L = 1000 mL

1000 mL
1.63 L x = 1630 mL
1L
1L L 2
1.63 L x = 0.001630
1000 bymL
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 Scientific Notation
The number of atoms in 12 g of carbon:
602,200,000,000,000,000,000,000
6.022 x 1023
The mass of a single carbon atom in grams:
0.0000000000000000000000199
1.99 x 10-23
N x 10n
N is a number n is a positive or
between 1 and 10 negative integer
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 Scientific Notation
568.762 0.00000772
move decimal left move decimal right
n>0 n<0
568.762 = 5.68762 x 102 0.00000772 = 7.72 x 10-6

Addition or Subtraction
1. Write each quantity with 4.31 x 104 + 3.9 x 103 =
the same exponent n
2. Combine N1 and N2 4.31 x 104 + 0.39 x 104 =
3. The exponent, n, remains 4.70 x 104
the same

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 Temperature

Celsius scale =°C

Kelvin scale = K
Fahrenheit scale =°F

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 Temperature

TK = TC + 27315
.

9° F
TF = TC × + 32° F
5° C

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Figure 1.11: The three major
temperature scales.

180/100= 9/5
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 TF
Tc

TF − 32 Tc − 0
=
212 − 32 100 − 0
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Figure 1.12: Normal body temperature on
the Fahrenheit, Celsius, and Kelvin scales.

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 Density
Density is the mass of substance per unit
volume of the substance:

mass
density =
volume

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 Matter:
Anything occupying
space and having mass.

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 Classification of Matter

Three States of Matter:

Solid: rigid - fixed volume and shape

Liquid: definite volume but assumes the

shape of its container

Gas: no fixed volume or shape - assumes

the shape of its container

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 Types of Mixtures

Mixtures have variable composition.

A homogeneous mixture is a solution (for
example, vinegar)
A heterogeneous mixture is, to the naked
eye, clearly not uniform (for example, a
bottle of ranch dressing)

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 Pure Substances

Can be isolated by separation methods:

✔ Chromatography
✔ Filtration
✔ Distillation

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Figure 1.15a:
Paper
chromatography
of ink.
(a) A line of the
mixture to be
separated is
placed at one
end of a sheet of
porous paper.

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Figure 1.15b:
Paper
chromatograph
y of ink.
(b) The paper
acts as a wick
to draw up the
liquid.

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Figure 1.15c:
Paper
chromatography
of ink.
(c) The
component with
the weakest
attraction for the
paper travels
faster than the
components that
cling to the paper.
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Figure 1.14: Simple laboratory
distillation apparatus.

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Compound: A substance with a
constant composition that can be
broken down into elements by
chemical processes.

Element: A substance that cannot be

decomposed into simpler substances by
chemical means.
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Figure 1.16: The organization of
matter.

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