Research tools and Data collection procedure

Dr.Ramachandra Associate Professor Principal College of Nursing NIMHANS Bangalore.

1. RESEARCH TOOLS

The written device that a researcher uses to collect data e.g questionnaires, tests, observation schedules.
- Denise F. Polit,2008.

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The construction of a research instrument or tool for data collection is the most important part of a research project because anything you say by way of findings or conclusions is based upon the type of information you collect, and the data you collect is entirely dependent upon the questions that you ask of your respondents.

1.1 GUIDELINES TO CONSTRUCT A RESEARCH TOOL:

Step I: Concept development

Clearly define and individually list all the specific objectives or research questions for the study.

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Step II: Specification of concept dimensions For each objective or research questions, list all the associated questions that as to be answered want to answer through your study.

Step III: Selection of indicators Take each research question listed in Step II and list the information required to answer it.

Step IV: Formation of index Formulate question(s) to obtain information.

Tools And Questionnaires A questionnaire or tool consists of a set of questions presented to a respondent for answers.

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Types of tools/ questions

1. Contingency questions A question that is answered only if the respondent gives a particular response to a previous question. This avoids asking questions of people that do not apply to them (for example, asking men if they have ever been pregnant) Contd

2. Matrix questions Identical response categories are assigned to multiple questions. The questions are placed one under the other, forming a matrix with response categories along the top and a list of questions down the side. This is an efficient use of page space and respondents time. Contd

3. Closed ended questions Respondents answers are limited to a fixed set of responses. Most scales are closed ended. Other types of closed ended questions include: Yes/no questions - The respondent answers with a yes or a no. Multiple choice - The respondent has several options from which to choose. Contd

- Scaled questions - Responses are grade on a continuum (example : rate the appearance of the product on a scale from 1 to 10, with 10 being the most preferred appearance). Examples of types of scales include the Likert scale, semantic differential scale, and rank-order scale.

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4. Open ended questions No options or predefined categories are suggested. The respondent supplies their own answer without being constrained by a fixed set of possible responses. Examples of types of open ended questions include: Completely unstructured - For example, What is your opinion on questionnaires? Contd

 Word association - Words are presented and the respondent mentions the first word that comes to mind.

Sentence completion - Respondents complete an incomplete sentence. For example, The most important consideration in my decision to buy a new house is . . . Contd.

 Story completion - Respondents complete an incomplete story. Picture completion - Respondents fill in an empty conversation balloon. Thematic apperception test - Respondents explain a picture or make up a story about what they think is happening in the picture. Contd

5. Paper-pencil-questionnaires It can be sent to a large number of people and saves the researcher time and money. People are more truthful while responding to the questionnaires regarding controversial issues in particular due to the fact that their responses are anonymous. But they also have drawbacks.

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6. Web based questionnaires: A new and inevitably growing methodology is the use of Internet based research. This would mean receiving an e-mail on which you would click on an address that would take you to a secure web-site to fill in a questionnaire.

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1.2 How To Construct Tools / Questionnaires:

Deciding which questionnaire to use Wording and structure of the questions - Questions should be kept short and simple - Avoid negative questions - Question should not contain Prestige Bias - Use indirect questions for sensitive issues - Using closed- ended questions. - Avoiding Leading Question Contd.

 Length and ordering of the Questions

- Keep the questionnaire as short as possible -Ask easy questions, which respondents will enjoy answering - If combined questionnaire, keep open ended question for the end. -Make questions as interesting as possible and easy to follow by varying type and length of question. Contd.

- Group the questions into specific topic as this it makes it easier to understand and follow. - Layout and spacing is important as cluttered questionnaire is less likely to be answered.

 Piloting the Questionnaire - The questionnaire must be tested out to see if it is obtaining the result which is required. - This is done by asking experts to read it through and see if there are any ambiguities which have not been noticed. - They should also be asked to comment about the length, structure and wording of the questionnaire and alter the questions accordingly.

2. DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURE:

Collecting data through any of the methods may involve some ethical issues in relation to the participants and the researcher: - Those from whom information is collected or those who are studied by a researcher become participants of the study. - Anyone who collects information for a specific purpose, adhering to the accepted code of conduct, is a researcher. Contd..

2.A Ethical issues concerning research participants

1. Collecting information: Request for information may put pressure or create anxiety on a respondent. Is it ethical? Research is required to improve conditions. Provided any piece of research is likely to help society directly or indirectly, it is acceptable to ask questions, if the respondents informed consent obtained.

If, justification relating to relevance of the research that has to be conducted has not been given then it means it is wasting the respondents time, which is unethical.
2. Seeking consent: In every discipline it is considered unethical to collect information without the knowledge of the participant, and their expressed willingness and informed consent. Contd..

 Informed consent implies that subjects are made adequately aware of the type of information that is required from them, why the information is being sought, what purpose it will be put to, how they are expected to participate in the study, and how it will directly or indirectly affect them. It is important that the consent should be voluntary and without pressure of any kind.

3. Providing incentives:
Most people do not participate in a study because of incentives, but because they realize the importance of the study.

Is it ethical to provide incentives to respondents to share information with the researcher because they are giving their time?
Giving a present before data collection is unethical.

4. Seeking sensitive information: Certain types of information can be regarded as sensitive or confidential by some people and thus an invasion to their privacy, asking for such information may upset or embarrass a respondent.
While collecting data the researcher need to be careful about the sensitivities of the respondents. Most people, questions on drug use, pilferage, income, age, marital status etc are intrusive. Contd.

 It is not unethical to ask such questions, provided that the researcher tells their respondents that the type of information required must be clear and frank, and give them sufficient time to decide if they want to participate, without any major inducement.

5. The possibility of causing harm to participant:

Harm include, research that might include hazardous experiments, discomfort, anxiety, harassment, invasion of privacy, or demeaning or dehumanizing procedures. If it is likely to, researcher must make sure that the risk is minimal i.e. the extent of harm or discomfort is not greater than that of ordinarily encountered in daily life. If the way information is sought creates anxiety or harassment, researcher need to take steps to prevent this.

6. Maintaining confidentiality:
Sharing information about a respondent with others for purposes other than research is unethical. Sometimes researcher need to identify the study population to put the findings into context. In such a situation researcher need to make sure that at least the information provided by respondents is kept anonymous. Contd

 It is unethical to identify an individuals responses. Therefore it has to be ensured that after the information has been collected, the source cannot be known. 2.B Ethical issues relating to the researcher 1. Avoiding bias Bias on the part of the researcher is unethical. Bias is a deliberate attempt to either to hide what is found in the study, or highlight something disproportionately to its true existence. Contd

2. Provision or deprivation of a treatment:

Both the provision and deprivation of a treatment/ intervention may pose an ethical dilemma. Is it ethical to provide a study population with an intervention/ treatment that has not yet been conclusively proven effective or beneficial? But if it is not tested, how can it be proved or disproved its effectiveness or benefits? Contd

3. Using inappropriate research methodology: It is unethical to use a method or procedure that the researcher thinks he/she is acquainted to be inappropriate. E.g. selecting a highly biased sample, using an invalid instrument or drawing wrong conclusions.

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4. Incorrect reporting: To report the findings in a way that changes or slants them to serve your own or someone elses interest is unethical.

5. Inappropriate use of the information: The use of information in a way that directly or indirectly adversely affects the respondents is unethical. If so, the study population needs to be protected. Contd

 An example would be a study to examine the feasibility of restructuring an organization. Restructuring may be beneficial to the organization as a whole but may be harmful to some individuals. Should the researcher ask the respondents for information that is likely to be used against them? Contd.

3. Data Collection Procedure In Quantitative And Qualitative Research

3.1 Data Collection Procedure In Quantitative Research The Quantitative data collection methods rely on random sampling and structured data collection instruments that fit diverse experiences into predetermined response categories. They produce results that are easy to summarize, compare, and generalize. Contd.

Typical quantitative data gathering strategies include: 1. Surveys Questionnaires and schedules Interview Primary Standardised scales /Instruments
Experimental treatments Participant observer Case study

secondary

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1. Surveys - This method captures information through the input of responses to a research instrument containing questions (i.e., such as a questionnaire). - It is also known as primary data collection technique. - Information can be input either by the respondents themselves (e.g., complete online survey) or the researcher can input the data (e.g. phone survey, mall intercept).
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- Surveys are done via postal mail, phone and website or in person. - However, newer technologies are creating additional delivery options including through wireless devices, such as smart phones.
Questionnaires and schedules - A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions and other prompts for the purpose of gathering information from respondents. Contd.

 Basic rules for questionnaire item construction - Use statements which are interpreted in the same way by members of different subpopulations of the population of interest. - Use statements where persons that have different opinions or traits will give different answers. - Think of having an "open" answer category after a list of possible answers. - Use only one aspect of the construct you are interested in per item. Contd.

- Use positive statements and avoid negatives or double negatives. - Do not make assumptions about the respondent. - Use clear and comprehensible wording, easily understandable for all educational levels - Use correct spelling, grammar and punctuation. - Avoid items that contain more than one question per item (e.g. what are you doing and where are you put up?).

Types of Questionnaires - Structured non disguised questionnaire Questions are listed in a pre-arranged order and respondents are told about the purpose of collecting information. - Structured- disguised questionnaire Questions are listed in a pre-arranged order and the respondents are not told about the purpose of conducting survey.
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- Non structured non disguised questionnaire Questions are not structured. Researcher is free to ask questions in any sequence he/she wants. Respondents are told about the purpose of collecting information.

- Non structured disguised questionnaire Questions are not structured. Researcher is free to ask questions in any sequence he/she wants and the respondents are not told about the purpose of conducting survey.

Interviews
Face -to -face interviews have a distinct advantage of enabling the researcher to establish rapport with potential participants and therefore gain their cooperation. These interviews yield highest response rates in survey research. They also allow the researcher to clarify ambiguous answers and when appropriate, seek follow-up information. Disadvantages include impractical when large samples are involved time consuming and expensive.

 Telephone interviews are less time consuming and less expensive and the researcher has ready access to anyone on the planet that has a telephone. Disadvantages are that the response rate is not as high as the face-to- face interview as but considerably higher than the mailed questionnaire. The sample may be biased to the extent that people without phones are part of the population about whom the researcher wants to draw inferences. Contd..

 Computer Assisted Personal Interviewing (CAPI): is a form of personal interviewing, but instead of completing a questionnaire, the interviewer brings along a laptop or hand-held computer to enter the information directly into the database. This method saves time involved in processing the data, as well as saving the interviewer from carrying around hundreds of questionnaires. Schedules are similar to the questionnaires which contains a set of questions that are filled by the enumerators who are specially appointed for this purpose.

Standardized scales /Instruments

A standardized test is a test that is administered and scored in a consistent, or "standard", manner. Any test in which the same test is given in the same manner to all test takers is a standardized test.eg. BREF scale to assess the quality of life.

Scales describes the assignment of numbers to various degrees of opinion, attitude and other concepts.

Scales data can be categorized as follows: Nominal - Representing particular categories, e.g. men or women. Ordinal - Ranked in some way such as order of passing a particular point in a competition. Interval - Ranked according to the interval between the data, which remains the same. Most typical of this type of data is temperature. Contd..

 Ratio- Where it is possible to measure the difference between different types of data - for example applying a measurement. Scalar-This type of data has intervals between it, which are not quantifiable.

Experimental treatments
- Participant observer The researcher himself/herself observes the groups experience by participating along with the group is called participant observer.

- Case study According to H. Odum case study method is a technique by which individual factor whether it be an institution or just an episode in the life of an individual or a group is analysed in its relationship to any other group. Contd

DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURE IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Qualitative research allows the subjects being studied to give much richer answers to questions put to them by the researcher, and may give valuable insights which might have been missed by any other method E.g, its impossible to carry out a meaningful structured questionnaire survey on patient satisfaction with a service, if the important issues to the patients surrounding the provision of that service are not known. Contd..

Data collection procedures commonly used in qualitative methods can be classified in four broad categories: Focus group Direct observation methods In-depth interview Document review Other field methods

 Focus group
- The researcher brings together a small number of subjects to discuss the topic of interest. - The group size is kept deliberately small, so that its members do not feel intimidated but can express opinions freely. - A topic guide to aid discussion is usually prepared beforehand and the researcher usually chairs the group, to ensure that a range of aspects of the topic are explored. - The discussion is frequently tape-recorded, then transcribed and analysed. Contd

- Example: Rutman (1996) explored the policy and practice implications of caregivers experiences of powerfulness and powerlessness. She used group workshops and brainstorming techniques to explore the ideal care giving situation. Direct observation - Data can be collected by an external observer, referred to as a non-participant observer or - The data can be collected by a participant observer, who can be a member of staff undertaking usual duties while observing the processes of care. Contd

 Sometimes a list of observations, the researcher is specifically looking for is prepared before-hand, other times the observer makes notes about anything they observe for analysis later.
Eg: Johnson and Webb (1995) used observation to gather evidence about how value judgments made by staff and patients can impact on decision making. In this study, the researcher acted as a participant observer, working as a nurse on the ward while observing situations where nurses were faced with difficult moral choices. Observations were recorded as field notes and analysed for content.

Techniques for collecting data through observation

Written descriptions. The researcher can record observations of people, a situation or an environment by making notes of what has been observed.
Video recording. This frees the observer from the task of making notes at the time and allows events to be reviewed time after time. Contd..

 Photographs and artefacts. - Photographs are a good way of collecting observable data of phenomena which can be captured in a single shot or series of shots. - For example, photographs of buildings, neighborhoods, dress and appearance. - Artefacts are objects which inform us about the phenomenon under study because of their significance to the phenomena. - For example, memorabilia in historical research. Similarly, they may be instruments or tools used by members of a sub group whether this is a population sub group or a professional or patient group.

 Documentation. - A wide range of written materials can produce qualitative information. - They can be particularly useful in trying to understand the philosophy of an organisation as may be required in action research and case studies.
In-depth interviews - Interviews use the same principle as a focus group, but subjects are interviewed individually, ideally in the patients own environment. Contd.

 They seldom involve asking a set of predetermined questions, as would be the case in quantitative surveys. Instead they encourage subjects to express their views at length. One particularly useful technique is the critical incident study, in which subjects are asked to comment on real events rather than giving generalisations.

 Document review Diary methods The researcher or subject keeps a personal account of daily events, feelings, discussions, interactions etc. Role-play and simulation Participants may be asked to play a role, or may be asked to observe role-play, after which they are asked to rate behaviour, report feelings, and predict further events.

Case-study - This is an in-depth study of just one person, group or event. This technique is simply a description of individuals. Historical- Collecting the monumental details of a particular event or an act. Literature review-The researcher collects the needed information from the previous evidences in the form of journals, books and magazines etc.

 Other field methods Nominal group technique More-controlled variant of brainstorming used in problem solving sessions to encourage creative thinking, without group interaction at ideageneration stage. Each member of the group writes down his or her ideas which are then discussed and prioritized one by one by the group. Also called nominal group process.

Delphi technique Delphi surveys are developed as a tool for short term forecasting. It involves a panel of experts who are asked to complete several rounds of questionnaires focusing on their judgments about the topics of interest.

Conclusion In addition, to this several procedures of data collection. There are triangulated methods or mixed methods of data collection which may include one or more method of primary or a secondary data collection methods. The other way round there will qualitative and quantitative method of data collection procedures combined in a single study.

REFERENCE Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary, s.v. "questionnaire," http://www.merriamwebster.com/dictionary/questionnaire (accessed May 21, 2008) Timothy R. Graeff, 2005. "Response Bias," Encyclopedia of Social Measurement, pp. 411-418. ScienceDirect. Frauke Kreuter, Stanley Presser, and Roger Tourangeau, 2008. "Social Desirability Bias in CATI, IVR, and Web Surveys: The Effects of Mode and Question Sensitivity", Public Opinion Quarterly, 72(5): 847-865 first published online January 26, 2009 doi:10.1093/poq/nfn063 Allyson L. Holbrook, Melanie C. Green And Jon A. Krosnick, 2003. "Telephone versus Face-toFace Interviewing of National Probability Samples with Long Questionnaires: Comparisons of Respondent Satisficing and Social Desirability Response Bias". Public Opinion Quarterly,67(1): 79-125. doi: 10.1086/346010 Dawson, Catherine, 2002, Practical Research Methods, New Delhi, UBSPublishers Distributors, Kothari, C.R.,1985, Research Methodology-Methods and Techniques, New Delhi, Wiley Eastern Limited. Kumar, Ranjit, 2005, Research Methodology-A Step-by-Step Guide for Beginners, (2nd.ed), Singapore, Pearson Education. Frederikson, LG, Chamberlain, K and Long, N. (1996) Unacknowledged casualties of the Vietnam war; experiences of partners of New Zealand veterans. Qualitative Health Johnson, M and Webb, C. (1995) Rediscovering unpopular patients: the concept of social judgement. Journal of Advanced Nursing 21 (3): 466-475 Rutman, D. (1996) Caregiving as womens work: womens experiences of powerfulness and powerlessness as caregivers. Qualitative Health Research 6 (1): 90-111

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