Chapter 7 Passive Devices

Chapter Outline
Inductors Basic Structure Inductance Equations Parasitic Capacitance Loss Mechanisms Inductor Modeling ransformers Structures Effect of Coupling Capacitance ransformer Modeling
Inductor Structures Symmetric Inductors Effect of Ground Shield Stacked Spirals
!aractors P" #unctions MOS !aractors !aractor Modeling
CH 7 Passive Devices
Moti$ation for On%Chip Integrated Inductors
)eduction of off chip components %%%* )eduction of system cost+ Modeling issues of off%chip inductors he &ond 'ires and package pins connecting chip to outside 'orld may e(perience significant coupling
Basic Inductor Structure

,as mutual coupling &et'een e$ery t'o turns+ Larger inductance than straight 'ire+ Spiral is implemented on top metal layer to minimi-e parasitic resistance and capacitance+
Inductance of " urn Spiral Structure

Inductance of an "%turn planar spiral structure inductor has terms+
.actors that limit the gro'th rate of an inductance of spiral inductor as function of "/ a0 1ue to planar geometry the inner turns ha$e smaller si-e and e(hi&it smaller inductance+ &0 he mutual coupling factor is a&out 2+3 for ad4acent turns hence contri&uting to lo'er inductance+
Geometry of Inductor Effects Inductance

5 t'o dimensional square spiral inductor is fully specified &y follo'ing four quantities/ a0 Outer dimension6 1out &0 Line 'idth6 7 c0 Line spacing6 S d0 "um&er of turns6 " !arious dimensions of spiral inductor
Effect of 1ou&ling Line 7idth of Inductor
Effect of dou&ling the line 'idth of inductor 1ou&ling the 'idth ine$ita&ly decreases the diameter of inner turn6 thus lo'ering their inductance+ he spacing &et'een the legs reduces6 hence their mutual inductance also decrease+
CH 7 Passive Devices 6
Magnetic Coupling .actor Plot
Coupling factor &8' 9 straight metal lines as a function of their normali-ed spacing O&tained from electromagnetic field simulations+
Inductor Structures Encountered in ).IC 1esign
Circular
Octagonal
Symmetric
Parallel Spirals Stacked 7ith Grounded shield !arious inductor geometries sho'n a&o$e are result of impro$ing the trade%offs in inductor design6 specifically those &et'een/ he quality factor and the capacitance+ he inductance and the dimensions+ "ote : hese $arious inductor geometries pro$ide additional degrees of freedom &ut also complicate the modeling task+
Inductance Equations
Closed form inductance equations can &e found &ased on ;0 Cur$e fitting methods 90 Physical properties of inductors !arious e(pressions ha$e &een reported in literature <;696=>+
Am Metal area , Atot Total Inductor area he equation a&o$e is an empirical formula 'hich estimates inductance of ?n, to ?2n, square spiral inductor 'ithin ;2@ error+
Parasitic Capacitance of Integrated Inductors

Bottom-Plate capacitance interwinding capacitances
Planar spiral inductor suffers from parasitic capacitance &ecause the metal lines of the inductor e(hi&it parallel plate capacitance and ad4acent turns &ear fring capacitance+
10
Estimation of Parasitic Capacitance
Model of inductorAs distri&uted capacitance to ground o simplify the analysis 'e make t'o assumptions/ ;0 Each t'o inductor segments ha$e a mutual coupling of M 90 he coupling is strong enough that M can &e assumed appro(imately equal to Lu !oltage across each inductor segment/
11
Estimation of Parasitic Capacitance

If M B Lu , then
Electrical energy stored in node capacitance is/
otal energy stored on all of the unit capacitances B
If k%%*infinity and Cu%%*2 such that kCu is equal to total 'ire capacitance/ Capacitance B Ctot 8=
Loss Mechanisms/ Metal )esistance
Metal resistance )s of spiral inductor of inductance L; C B Cuality factor of inductor Dmeasure of loss in inductor0
Loss Mechanisms/ Skin Effect
Current distri&ution in a conductor at Da0 Lo' frequency D&0 ,igh frequency
S in depth !
"#tra resistance !
14
Skin Effect/ Current Cro'ding Effect
Da0 Current distri&ution in ad4acent turns D&0 1etailed $ie' of Da0 Based on the o&ser$ation in <36E> deri$e the follo'ing e(pressions/
5t fcrit 6 the magnetic field produced &y ad4acent turn induces eddy current6 causing unequal distri&ution of current across the conductor 'idth6 hence altering the effecti$e resistance of the turn+
Current Cro'ding Effect on Parasitic Capacitance
5s current flo's through a smaller 'idth of conductor6 this causes a reduction in the effecti$e area &et'een the metal and su&strate6 hence there is a reduction in the total capacitance+
16
Capaciti$e Coupling to Su&strate
Su&strate loss due to capaciti$e coupling !oltage at each point of the spiral rise and fall 'ith time causing displacement current flo' &et'een this capacitance and su&strate+ his current causes loss and reduces the C of the inductor+
)ecap of Basic Electromagnetic La's
5mpereAs La'/ States that the current flo'ing through a conductor generates a magnetic field around the conductor+
.aradayAs La'/ States that a time $arying magnetic field induces a $oltage and hence a current6 if a $oltage appears across a conducting material+ Len-As La'/ States that the current induced &y a magnetic field generates another magnetic field opposing the first field+
18
Magnetic Coupling to Su&strate
he time $arying inductor current generates eddy current in the su&strate+ Len-As la' states that this current flo's in the opposite direction+ he induction of eddy currents in the su&strate can &e $ie'ed as transformer coupling+
Modeling of Magnetic Coupling &y ransformer
Vin = L1sIin + MsI2 -Rsub I2 = L2I2s + MsIin
20
Modeling Loss &y Series or Parallel )esistor
Q = L1 /Rs
Q = Rp /L1
5 constant series resistance Rs model inductor loss for limited range of frequencies+ 5 constant parallel resistance Rp model inductor loss for narro' range of frequencies+ "ote %%* he &eha$ior of C of inductor predicted &y a&o$e t'o models has suggested opposite trends of C 'ith frequency+
21
Modeling Loss &y Both Series and Parallel )esistors
Modeling loss &y &oth parallel and series resistances
)esulting &eha$ior of C
O$erall C of inductor
22
Broad&and Model of Inductor
Broad&and model Broad&and skin effect model 5t lo' frequencies current is uniformly distri&uted thorough the conductor and model reduces to );FF)9FF+++++FF)n <G> 5s frequency increases the current mo$es a'ay from the center of the conductor6 as modeled &y rising impedance of inductors in each &ranch+ In <G>6 a constant ratio of )48)4H; is maintained to simplify the model+ D L4 and )4 represents the impedance of cylinder 4 of conductor sho'n a&o$e0
1efinitions of C
)educe any resonant net'ork to a parallel )LC tank6 Lumping all of the loss in a single parallel resistance )p+ 1efine
24
Symmetric Inductor
1ifferential circuits can employ a single symmetric inductor instead of t'o asymmetric inductors+ It has t'o ad$antages/ ;0 Sa$e area 90 1ifferential geometry also e(hi&it higher C+
Equi$alent Lumped Inter'inding Capacitance
a0 = turn symmetrical inductor D&0 equi$alent structure Dc0 !oltage profile 7e un'ind the structure as depicted a&o$e6 assuming6 an appro(imation6 that all unit inductances are equal and so are all unit capacitances+
Equi$alent Lumped Inter'inding Capacitance

otal energy stored on the four capacitors is B
'here C1= C2 = C3 = C4 +1enoting C1+ C2 + C3 + C4 = Ctot 6 'e ha$e
5nd hence equi$alent lumped capacitance is/
Equi$alent lumped inter'iding capacitance of a symmetrical inductor is typically much larger than capacitance of su&strate6 dominating self resonance frequency+
Mirror8Step Symmetry of Single Ended Inductor
Load inductors in a diff+ pair 'ith Da0 Mirror symmetry D&0 Step symmetry Le = L1 + L2 ! 2M Lo'er C Le = L1 + L2 + 2M ,igher C
28
Magnetic Coupling 5long 5(is of Symmetry
Da0 Single%ended inductor
D&0 Symmetric inductor
1ifferential spiral inductor produces a magnetic field on a(is of symmetry+ "o such coupling in case of t'o single ended inductors on a(is of symmetry
E(ample/ Inductor 'ith )educed Magnetic Coupling 5long 5(is of Symmetry
he structure is more symmetric than single%ended spirals 'ith step symmetry+ Magnetic field of t'o hal$es cancel on a(is of symmetry ,a$e lo'er C than differential inductor &ecause each half e(periences its o'n su&strate losses$
Inductors 'ith Ground Shield
his structure allo's the displacement current to flo' through the lo' resistance path to ground to a$oid electrical loss through su&strate+ Eddy currents through a continuous shield drastically reduce inductance and C6 so a IpatternedJ shield is used+ his shield reduces the effect of capaciti$e coupling to su&strate Eddy currents of magnetic coupling still flo's through su&strate+
Stacked Inductors
Ltot = L1 + L2 + 2M M = L 1 = L2 Ltot = 4L
Similarly6 " stacked spiral inductor operating in series raises total inductance &y a factor of "9+
32
Equi$alent Capacitance for a Stacked Inductor
C" B inner spiral capacitances In addition to su&strate and inter'inding capacitance it also contains another capacitance in &et'een stacked spirals+
33
ransformers
Kseful function of transformer in ). 1esign Impedance matching .eed&ack and feedfor'ard 'ith positi$e and negati$e polarity Single ended to differential con$ersion and $ice%$erse+ 5C coupling &et'een stages
34
Characteristics of 7ell%1esigned ransformers
Lo' series resistance in primary and secondary 'indings+ ,igh magnetic coupling &et'een primary and secondary 'indings+ Lo' capaciti$e coupling &et'een primary and secondary 'indings+ Lo' parasitic capacitance to the su&strate
35
ransformer Structures
ransformer deri$ed from a symmetric inductor
Segments 5B and C1 are mutually coupled inductors+ Primary and secondary are identical so this is ;/; transformer+
Simple ransformer Model and its ransfer .unction
he transformer action gi$es
Sol$e a&o$e t'o equations for I2
37
Simple ransformer Model and its ransfer .unction

LCL at output node yields
)eplacing I9 in a&o$e equation and simplifying the result6 'e o&tain
38
Input Impedance of ransformer Model 'ith C.B2
Setting C. B 2 in a&o$e equation
Input8output transfer function B
Input Impedance B
39
ransformer 'ith urn )atio More than Knity
7eaker mutual coupling factor
Stronger mutual coupling factor
40
Stacked ransformers
One to One Stack transformer
One to t'o Stack Staggering of turns to transformer reduce capaciti$e coupling
,igher magnetic coupling+ Knlike planar structures6 primary and secondary can &e identical and symmetrical+ O$erall area is less than planar structure Larger capaciti$e coupling compared to planar structure+
Effect of Coupling Capacitance

ransfer function of transformer at s B 4/
.or M*26 frequency response e(hi&it notch at M ,-+ .or MN26 no such notch e(ist and transformer can 'ork at higher frequency+ So Inon%in$ertingJ transformer suffers from lo'er speed than Iin$ertingJ transformer+
42
ransformer Modeling
1ue to the comple(ity of this model it is $ery difficult to find the $alues of each component from measurement or field simulations+
43
%Line as Inductor
%Line ser$ing as load inductor
%Line ha$ing short circuit termination act as an inductor Dif % line is much smaller than the 'a$elength of signal0+
44
%Line as Impedance ransformer
%Line of length d6 terminated 'ith a load impedance of O L e(hi&it input impedance B OinDd0+
RB9S8P 6 O2 B Characteristic impedance E(ample at dB P8Q then i+e+ a capaciti$e load transforms to inducti$e component+
45
%Line Structures/ Microstrip
In microstrip structure6 signal line reali-ed in top%most metal layer and ground plane is in lo'er metal layer+ ,ence ha$e minimum interaction &et'een signal line and su&strate+
Characteristic Impedance of Micristrips

Characteristic impedance of microstrip6 of signal line thickness AtA and height AhA 'ith respect to ground plane6 is+
"ote %* 5&o$e equation predict characteristic impedance 'ith a large error Das large as ;2@0+
47
ACA of Lossy %Line
48
%Line Structures/ Coplanar Lines
he characteristic impedance of the coplanar structure is higher than that of the microstrip &ecause ;0 hickness of signal and ground lines are quite small6 leading to lo'er capacitance+ 90 Spacing &et'een t'o lines can &e small6 further decreasing the capacitance+
%Line Structures/ Stripline
Stripline structure consists of a signal line surrounded &y ground planes+ It produces $ery little field leakage to surroundings+ he characteristic impedance of the stripline is smaller than &oth microstrip and coplanar structures+
!aractors
!aractor is a $oltage%dependent capacitor+ 'o important attri&utes of $aractor design &ecome critical in oscillator design he capacitance range i+e+ ratio of ma(imum to minimum capacitance that $aractor can pro$ide+ he quality factor of the $aractor+
51
P" #unction !aractor
C4o B Capacitance at -ero &ias !o B Built%in potential+ m B e(ponent around 2+= in integrated structure !aractor capacitance of re$ersed%&iased P" 4unction+ "ote % 7eak dependance of C4 upon !d6 &ecause D!d6ma( B ;! 0 C46ma(8C46min T ;+9= DLo' range0 +
!aractor C Calculation Issues
C of $aractor is o&tained &y measurement on fa&ricated structure 1ifficult to calculate it Current distri&ution in $aractor 5s sho'n a&o$e6 due to the t'o dimensional flo' of current it is difficult to compute the equi$alent series resistance of the structure+ "%'ell sheet resistance can not &e directly applied to calculation of $aractor series resistance+
MOS !aractor U
)egular MOS de$ice/
!ariation of gate capacitance 'ith !gs 5 regular MOS.E e(hi&its a $oltage dependent gate capacitance he non%monotonic &eha$ior 'ith respect to gate $oltage limits the design fle(i&ility+
5ccumulation Mode MOS !aractor

5ccumulation%mode MOS $aractor is o&tained &y placing an "MOS inside an n'ell + he $ariation of capacitance 'ith !gs is monotonic+ he C8! characteristics scale 'ell 'ith scaling in technology+ Knlike P" 4unction $aractor this structure can operate 'ith positi$e and negati$e &ias so as to pro$ide ma(imum tuning range+
55
C8! characteristics of $aractor

5ccumulation Mode MOS !aractor Operation
!g N !s 1epletion region is formed under gate o(ide+ Equi$alent capacitance is the series com&ination of gate capacitance and depletion capacitance+
!g * !s .ormation of channel under gate o(ide$
56
5ccumulation Mode MOS !aractor/ Cur$e .itting Model

Cur$e fitting model/
,ere6 I!oJ and IaJ allo' fitting for the slope and the intercept+ he a&o$e $aractor model translates to different characteristics in different circuit simulators+ Simulation tools D,SPICE0 that analy-e circuits in terms of $oltages and currents interpret the a&o$e non%linear capacitance equation correctly+
5ccumulation Mode MOS !aractor/ Charge Equation Model

Charge equation model/
Simulation tools D Cadence Spectre0 that represent the &eha$ior of capacitors &y charge equations interpret this charge equation model correctly+
58
C of 5ccumulation mode MOS !aractor
C of $aractor/ 1etermined &y the resistance &et'een source and drain terminals+ 5ppro(imately calculated &y lumped model sho'n in a&o$e+
Calculation of Equi$alent )esistance and Capacitance !alue in Lumped Model+
1istri&uted Model
Canonical %line Structure Equi$alent structure for half circuit he equi$alent structure a&o$e resem&les a transmission line consisting of series resistances and parallel capacitances+ .or general %line structure the input impedance is /
60
Calculation of Equi$alent )esistance and Capacitance !alue in Lumped Model

7here #1 and $1 are specified for unit length and d is the length of line and from a&o$e equi$alent structure #1%=Rtot and $1%=sCtot& 5t frequencies 'ell &elo' ;8DRtotCtot 8Q06 the argument of tanh is much less than unity6 allo'ing the appro(imation6 tanh B V =8= B 8D;H 98=0 It follo's that
he lumped model of half of the structure consists of its distri&uted capacitance in series 'ith ;8= of its distri&uted resistance+ 5ccounting for the gray half in equi$alent circuit of half structure6 'e o&tain
61
!ariation of MOS !aractor C 'ith Capacitance
!ariation of $aractor C 'ith capacitance .or Cmin6 the capacitance is small and resistance is large+ .or Cma(6 the capacitance is large and resistance is small+ 5&o$e comments suggest that C remains relati$ely constant+ In practice6 C drops as 'e increase cap from Cmin to Cma(6 suggesting that relati$e rise in capacitance is greater than fallDevices in resistance+ CH 7 Passive 62
Effect of O$erlap Capacitance on Capacitance )ange
O$erlap capacitance is relati$ely $oltage independent+ O$erlap capacitance shifts the C8! characteristics up6 yielding a ratio of 'C"() + 2*Co+,/'C"in + 2*Co+,
Constant Capacitors
). circuits employ constant capacitors for purposes/ o ad4ust the resonance frequency of LC tanks+ o pro$ide coupling &et'een stages+ o &ypass the supply rail to ground+ $arious
Critical parameters of capacitors used in ). IC design/ Capacitance density+ Parasitic capacitance+ C of the capacitor+
64
MOS Capacitor/ Ksage E(amples
MOS capacitor coupling de$ice+
used
as
MOS capacitor used as &ypass capacitor
65
MOS Capacitor/ Layout

MOS capacitor reali-ed as one long finger ha$ing resistance
MOS capacitor reali-ed as multiple short fingers ha$ing resistance/
66
Metal Plate Capacitor
Parallel plate capacitor+ his structure employs planes in different metal layers+
Metal Plate Capacitor/ Bottom Plate Parasitic
Parallel plate capacitor geometry suffers from &ottom plate parasitic capacitance+ his capacitance reaches upto ;2@ of actual capacitance6 leading to serious difficulty in circuit design
.ringe Capacitor
.ringe capacitor consists of narro' metal lines 'ith minimum spacing+ he lateral electric field &et'een ad4acent metal lines leads to a high capacitance density+
)eferences
70
)eferences
71
)eferences
72

Chapter 7 Passive Devices

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Chapter 7 Passive Devices

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Chapter Outline

Inductor Structures Symmetric Inductors Effect of Ground Shield Stacked Spirals

!aractors P" #unctions MOS !aractors !aractor Modeling

Moti$ation for On%Chip Integrated Inductors

Basic Inductor Structure

Inductance of " urn Spiral Structure

Geometry of Inductor Effects Inductance

Effect of 1ou&ling Line 7idth of Inductor

Magnetic Coupling .actor Plot

Inductor Structures Encountered in ).IC 1esign

Parasitic Capacitance of Integrated Inductors

Estimation of Parasitic Capacitance

Estimation of Parasitic Capacitance

Electrical energy stored in node capacitance is/

otal energy stored on all of the unit capacitances B

Loss Mechanisms/ Metal )esistance

Loss Mechanisms/ Skin Effect

Current distri&ution in a conductor at Da0 Lo' frequency D&0 ,igh frequency

Skin Effect/ Current Cro'ding Effect

Current Cro'ding Effect on Parasitic Capacitance

Capaciti$e Coupling to Su&strate

)ecap of Basic Electromagnetic La's

Magnetic Coupling to Su&strate

Modeling of Magnetic Coupling &y ransformer

Vin = L1sIin + MsI2 -Rsub I2 = L2I2s + MsIin

Modeling Loss &y Series or Parallel )esistor

Modeling Loss &y Both Series and Parallel )esistors

Modeling loss &y &oth parallel and series resistances

Broad&and Model of Inductor

Equi$alent Lumped Inter'inding Capacitance

Equi$alent Lumped Inter'inding Capacitance

'here C1= C2 = C3 = C4 +1enoting C1+ C2 + C3 + C4 = Ctot 6 'e ha$e

5nd hence equi$alent lumped capacitance is/

Mirror8Step Symmetry of Single Ended Inductor

Magnetic Coupling 5long 5(is of Symmetry

Da0 Single%ended inductor

D&0 Symmetric inductor

E(ample/ Inductor 'ith )educed Magnetic Coupling 5long 5(is of Symmetry

Inductors 'ith Ground Shield

Equi$alent Capacitance for a Stacked Inductor

Characteristics of 7ell%1esigned ransformers

ransformer deri$ed from a symmetric inductor

Simple ransformer Model and its ransfer .unction

he transformer action gi$es

Sol$e a&o$e t'o equations for I2

Simple ransformer Model and its ransfer .unction

)eplacing I9 in a&o$e equation and simplifying the result6 'e o&tain

Input Impedance of ransformer Model 'ith C.B2

Setting C. B 2 in a&o$e equation

Input8output transfer function B

ransformer 'ith urn )atio More than Knity

7eaker mutual coupling factor

Stronger mutual coupling factor

One to One Stack transformer

One to t'o Stack Staggering of turns to transformer reduce capaciti$e coupling

Effect of Coupling Capacitance

%Line ser$ing as load inductor

%Line as Impedance ransformer

%Line Structures/ Microstrip

Characteristic Impedance of Micristrips

ACA of Lossy %Line

%Line Structures/ Coplanar Lines

%Line Structures/ Stripline

P" #unction !aractor