Simple vector algebra

Components of vectors
Basic concepts
Scalar differentiation of a vector

Scalar and vector fields

The gradient of a scalar field

Divergence and curl of a vector field

Vector spaces

The scalar (dot) product
The vector (cross) product
Advanced vector algebra
Scalar vs vector quantities
Scalar quantities:

Mass m ( 2 mg )

Temperature T ( 20 C )

Distance d ( 1 m)

pH of a solvent (pH 7)

A scalar quantity is specified
by a single real number (with
or without units) and has
magnitude only. They obey
the rules of the algebra of real
numbers.
Vector quantities:

Force F
Velocity v

A vector quantity is specified
by magnitude and by
direction. They obey the rules
of the vector algebra.

Vector formalism is crucial
for formulation and solving
of problems in three
dimensions.
Graphical representation of vectors
a ( a )
A
B
a = AB
Initial point
of a vector
Terminal point
of a vector
A
y
x
z
B
O
a
b
c
a and b are positions vectors
c is the displacement vector
A
y
x
z
B
O
v
A
v
B
F
A
F
B
v
A
and v
B
are velocity vectors
F
A
and F
B
are forces vectors
Basic notations and terms
The length, magnitude or modulus of a vector
a is written as |a| or as a scalar quantity a.
A vector of zero length is called the null vector.
No direction is defined in this case!
Equality
Two vectors are equal if they have the
same length and the same direction.
a
b
Addition and subtraction of vectors
a
b
a + b
a
b
a + b
b
a
Parallelogram law
a + b = b + a
Subtraction Addition
a b = a + ( b)
a
b
a + b
b
a b
a
a =b
Multiplication by a scalar
b =ca
The vector b has the length c times the length
of vector a and has the same direction if c > 0
and has opposite direction if c < 0
a b =2a
b = a
2

1

b = a
2

3

Definition of unit vector
|a |
a

a =
^
a
a
^
Definition
Two dimensions
a
x
= |a| cos u
Component of a vector
is a scalar quantity !

i
x
y
O
a
j
a
y
j
a
x
i
x
2
y
2
x
y
O
x
1
y
1
a = (a
x
,a
y
)
a
x
= x
2
x
1
a
y
= y
2
y
1
| a | = a
x
2
+a
y
2
Length:
Direction: a
y
/ a
x
a = a
x
i +a
y
j
a
u
a
x
x
Three dimensions
a
y
j
a
Q
y
x
z
O
a
x
i
a
z
k
a = a
x
i +a
y
j +a
z
k
a =( a
x
,a
y
,a
z
)
Equality
Addition and substraction
Scalar multiplication
a =b , if a
x
=b
x
, a
y
=b
y
, a
z
=

b
z

a b =(a
x

b
x
, a
y

b
y
, a
z

b
z
)
ca =(ca
x
, ca
y
, ca
z
)
System of four bodies
r
1
=( x
1
, y
1
, z
1
)
r
3
=( x
3
, y
3
, z
3
) r
4
=( x
4
, y
4
, z
4
)
r
2
=( x
2
, y
2
, z
2
)
All vectors are position vectors, i.e. their components
are the cartesian coordinates of points.
R = (m
1
r
1
+ m
2
r
2
+ m
3
r
3
+ m
4
r
4
)
M

1

z
y
x
O
r
1
r
2
r
3
r
4
m
1
m
2
m
3
m
4
M = m
1
+ m
2
+ m
3
+ m
4

R
x
= (m
1
x
1
+ m
2
x
2
+ m
3
x
3
+ m
4
x
4
)
M

1

R
y
= (m
1
y
1
+ m
2
y
2
+ m
3
y
3
+ m
4
y
4
)
M

1

R
z
= (m
1
z
1
+ m
2
z
2
+ m
3
z
3
+ m
4
z
4
)
M

1

R
x
= m
i
x
i
; R
y
= m
i
y
i

=
N
i 1

=
N
i 1
M

1

M

1

R
z
= m
i
z
i
; M = m
i

=
N
i 1

=
N
i 1
M

1

M

1

System of N bodies
Center of mass
Base vectors
i =( 1, 0

, 0

) j =( 0, 1

, 0

) k =( 0, 0

,1

)
Cartesian unit vectors
Any three noncoplanar vectors can be base vectors
v =v
a
a +v
b
b +v
c
c
In crystallography
j
v
Q
y
x
z
O
i
k
v =v
x
i +v
y
j +v
z
k
v
1
=3

a +2 b v
2
=2

a +3 b
a
b
v
1
v
2
At 0 corresponds to B A and direction of Av the direction of tangent to the curve at A.
z
t d
dv
= lim
At
Av
At 0
= lim
At
v (t+At) v (t)
At 0
Av = v (t+At) v (t)
v (t) =v
x
(t) i +v
y
(t) j +v
z
(t) k
In terms of the vector component, the
dependence of v on t is that of components.
= i + j + k
t
t
d
d ) ( v
t
t
x
d
d ) ( v
t
t
y
d
d ) ( v
t
t
z
d
d ) ( v
O
A
B
v (t)
v (t+At)
Av
t d
dv
j
v
Q
y
x
O
i
k
A vector v = v (t) is a function of the scalar
variable t if its magnitude or its direction, or
both, depends on the value of t .
Example
r (t) =r
x
(t) i +r
y
(t) j +r
z
(t) k
Position vector of a body and parameter t is the time.
First derivative is velocity
= i + j + k
=v
x
(t) i +v
y
(t) j +v
z
(t) k
t
t
d
d ) ( r
t
r t
x
d
d ) (
t
r t
y
d
d ) (
t
r t
z
d
d ) (
v (t) =
The speed is magnitude
of velocity
v (t) =
2 2 2
z y x
v v v + +
Second derivative is acceleration
= i + j + k

= i + j + k
t
t
d
d ) ( v
t
t
x
d
d ) ( v
t
t
y
d
d ) ( v
t
t
z
d
d ) ( v
a (t) =
t
r t
x
2
2
d
d ) (
t
r t
y
2
2
d
d ) (
t
r t
z
2
2
d
d ) (
Parametric representation of a curve
v (t) =0 i +(a cos t) j +(b sin t) k
is parametric representation of an ellipse in the yz-plane
The vector function
v (t) =v
x
(t) i +v
y
(t) j +v
z
(t) k
t is the parameter of the representation
j
v (t)
y
x
z
O
i
k
t
C
j
v (t)
y
x
z
O
i
k
t
Definition
O
B
A
a
u
b
a b = | a || b | cos u
The scalar product is a scalar quantity !

In terms of cartesian components
a b = a
x
b
x
+ a
y
b
y
+ a
z
b
z

a = a
x
i +a
y
j +a
z
k
j
a
Q
y
x
z
O
i
k
b = b
x
i +b
y
j +b
z
k
a b = (a
x
i +a
y
j +a
z
k ) (b
x
i +b
y
j +b
z
k )
i i = j j = k k =1 1 cos 0 = 1
i j = k j =i k =1 1 cos 90 = 0
The dot product
gives the vector
amount that one
vector contributes
along the same line
as another vector.
a b = 0
The vectors are said to be orthogonal !

Properties
It is not possible to cancel vectors in a vector
equation in the same way as is possible for
scalars !

The equation has three solution: (i) a = 0;
(ii) b = c; (iii) a is orthogonal to b c
a b = a c
Force and work
F
u
F
d
F

d
O
r
1
r
2
d = r
2
r
1
W = F d
W = Fd cos u
F = F
d
+ F
Charges in an electric field
Potential energy


E
is the dipole moment of the
system of charges
E is an electric field
V =
Definition
The vector product is a vector !

v = a b
| v | = | a || b | sin u
Absolute value
Direction
a
u
b
a
b
b sin u
Area of
parallelogram
b
a
v = a b
b
a
v = a b
The cross product is the
result of multiplying
different components of
two vectors to get a
product vector that is at
right angles to both of
the original vectors and
that has a magnitude
equal to the area of the
parallelogram that the
two vectors frame
Anti-commutative property
a b = b a
b
a
a b
b
a
b a
In terms of cartesian components
a b = i (a
y
b
z
a
z
b
y
) +
j (a
z
b
x
a
x
b
z
) +
k (a
x
b
y
a
y
b
x
)

a b =
i j k
a
x
a
y
a
z
b
x
b
y
b
z
Using determinants
The vector product is used for description of properties
associated with torque (the measured ability of a force
to produce turning or twisting around an axis) and
angular motion.
An electric dipole in an electric field
E
+q
q
F
1
= q E
F
2
= q E
r
1
r
2
r

O
T = r
1
F
1
+ r
2
F
2
=
= q (r
1
r
2
) E = E
Torque (moment of force)
T = r F

Torque that tends to align the dipole
along the direction of the field
The vector product is used for description of properties
associated with torque (the measured ability of a force
to produce turning or twisting around an axis) and
angular motion.
Angular velocity
r
r
v
e
O
r
e
O
A
u
v

v = e r
v = e r sin u v = e r
Scalar field
Vector field
j
r
Q
y
x
z
O
i
k
A number is associated
with each point in space
A vector is associated
with each point in space
Examples:
Temperature at different
parts of a body;
Density functions.
f = f ( r )= f (x,y,z)

r
Q
y
x
z
O
v
v = v ( r ) = v (x,y,z)

Examples:
Velocity field used to
describe fluid flow in
hydrodynamics
Electric and magnetic
fields.
V = i + j + k
c
c
y c
c
x c
c
z
Definition
grad f (r) = i + j + k
c
c
y
f
c
c
x
f
c
c
z
f
Vector differential operator (del or nabla)
grad f = V f = i + j + k f
c
c
y c
c
x c
c
z
The gradient can be interpreted as the result of operating
on the function f with the vector differential operator.
Coulomb forces
q
1 q
2
r

Potential energy
4t c
o
r
q
1
q
2
V =
F = V V =
c
c
y c
c
x c
c
z 4t c
o

q
1
q
2
j +
r
1

i +
r
1

r
1

k
r = x i +y j +z k
F =
4t c
o
r
2

q
1
q
2
j + i + k
=
4t c
o
r
2

q
1
q
2
r
^
F = q
2
E
E =
4t c
o
r
2

q
1
r
^
= V =
4t c
o
r
q
1
The force acting on
q
2
due to the
presence of q
1

Position of q
2

relative to q
1

Unit vector in the
direction from q
1
to q
2

Scalar field
(electrostatic potential
dr = dx i + dy j + dz k
Meaning
How the value of a function of position f (r) changes from point to point in space ?
Differential (infinitesimal) displacement
r r + dr {(x,y,z) (x+dx,y+dy,z+dz)}


Corresponding change in the function is the total differential
d f = dx + dy + dz
c
c
x
f
c
c
y
f
c
c
z
f
d f = V f dr
The quantity V f is the generalization to three dimensions of the ordinary derivative .
The vector operator V is the generalization of the differential operator .
d
dx
df
dx
d
dr
Definition
div v ( r ) = V v =
c
c
x
v
x
c
c
y
v
y
c
c
z
v
z
+ +
If the vector field v field is the velocity field of a fluid, then divv is a flux density and
the value divv dV at a point is the measure of net flux or fluid out of dV at the point
Divergence of the gradient
V Vf =
c
c
2

x
2
f
+
c
c
2

y
2
f
+
c
c
2

z
2
f
The Laplasian operator V V = V
2
V
2
f =0 . If , then there is no net flux
out of a volume element (incompressible fluid in a region containing no sources or sinks
Or for an electrostatic field in a region free of charges ).
Definition
curl v ( r ) = V v =
c
c
y
v
z
j + i +
c
c
z
v
y

c
c
z
v
x
c
c
x
v
z

c
c
z
v
x
c
c
x
v
z

k
c
c
x
V v =
i
j
k
v
x
c
c
y c
c
z
v
y
v
z
If the vector field v field is the velocity field of a
fluid, then curlv (or rotv ) at a point is a
measure of circulation of fluid around the point.
Properties
curl grad f = V V f =0 div curl v = V (V v ) =0
A property of the
electrostatic field
A property of the
magnetic field
Orthogonal base vectors in n dimensions
e
1
= ( 1, 0, 0, ... , 0 ) e
2
= ( 0, 1, ... , 0

) . . . e
n
= ( 0, 0, ... , 1

)
a =a
1
e
1
+a
2
e
2
+... +a
n
e
n
A vector in n dimensions
The scalar (inner) product in n dimensions
a b = a
1
b
1
+ a
2
b
2
+ ... + a
n
b
n

a b = 0
The length (norm) of a vector in n dimensions
|a| =
2
n
2
2
2
1
a a a + + +
a a =
Orthogonal (perpendicular) vectors
SISTEM KOORDINAT
42
Lecture 1
Why Do We Need Coordinate
Why Do We Need Coordinate
Systems?
Systems?
The laws of The laws of electrophysics electrophysics (like the laws of physics (like the laws of physics
in general) are independent of a particular in general) are independent of a particular
coordinate system. coordinate system.
However, application of these laws to obtain the However, application of these laws to obtain the
solution of a particular problem imposes the need to solution of a particular problem imposes the need to
use a suitable coordinate system. use a suitable coordinate system.
It is the It is the shape of the boundary shape of the boundary of the problem that of the problem that
determines the most suitable coordinate system to determines the most suitable coordinate system to
use in its solution. use in its solution.
43
Lecture 1
Orthogonal Right
Orthogonal Right
-
-
Handed
Handed
Coordinate Systems
Coordinate Systems
A A coordinate system coordinate systemdefines a set of three defines a set of three
reference directions at each and every point in reference directions at each and every point in
space. space.
The The origin origin of the coordinate system is the reference of the coordinate system is the reference
point relative to which we locate every other point point relative to which we locate every other point
in space. in space.
A A position vector position vector defines the position of a point in defines the position of a point in
space relative to the origin. space relative to the origin.
These three reference directions are referred to as These three reference directions are referred to as
coordinate directions coordinate directions, and are usually taken to be , and are usually taken to be
mutually perpendicular ( mutually perpendicular (orthogonal orthogonal). ).
1
Lecture 1
Orthogonal
Orthogonal
Right
Right
-
-
Handed
Handed
Coordinate Systems
Coordinate Systems

Unit vectors along the coordinate directions
Unit vectors along the coordinate directions
are referred to as
are referred to as
base vectors
base vectors
.
.

In any of the orthogonal coordinate systems,
In any of the orthogonal coordinate systems,
an arbitrary vector can be expressed in terms
an arbitrary vector can be expressed in terms
of a superposition of the three base vectors.
of a superposition of the three base vectors.

Consider base vectors such that
Consider base vectors such that
2 1 3
1 3 2
3 2 1



a a a
a a a
a a a
=
=
=
2

a
1

a
3

a
Such a
coordinate
system is called
right-handed.
45
Lecture 1
Orthogonal Right
Orthogonal Right
-
-
Handed
Handed
Coordinate Systems
Coordinate Systems

Note that the base vectors can, in general,
Note that the base vectors can, in general,
point in different directions at different
point in different directions at different
points in space.
points in space.

Obviously, if they are to serve as
Obviously, if they are to serve as
references, then their directions must be
references, then their directions must be
known a priori for each and every point in
known a priori for each and every point in
space.
space.
46
Lecture 1
Coordinate Systems Used in
Coordinate Systems Used in
This Class
This Class

In this class, we shall solve problems
In this class, we shall solve problems
using three orthogonal right
using three orthogonal right
-
-
handed
handed
coordinate systems:
coordinate systems:

Cartesian
Cartesian

cylindrical
cylindrical

spherical
spherical
( ) z y x , ,
( ) z , ,|
( ) | u, , r
47
Lecture 1
Cartesian Coordinates
Cartesian Coordinates

The point
The point
P(x
P(x
1 1
,y
,y
1 1
,z
,z
1 1
)
)
is located as the
is located as the
intersection of three mutually perpendicular
intersection of three mutually perpendicular
planes
planes
:
:
x=x
x=x
1 1
,
,
y=y
y=y
1 1
,
,
z=z
z=z
1 1
.
.

The base vectors are
The base vectors are

The base vectors satisfy the following
The base vectors satisfy the following
relations:
relations:
z y x
a a a

,

y x z
x z y
z y x
a a a
a a a
a a a



=
=
=
z
a

y
a

x
a

48
Lecture 1
Cylindrical Coordinates
Cylindrical Coordinates

The point
The point
P
P
(
(

1 1
,
,
|
|
1 1
,
,
z
z
1 1
)
)
is located as the
is located as the
intersection of three mutually perpendicular
intersection of three mutually perpendicular
surfaces:
surfaces:

=
=

1 1
(a circular cylinder),
(a circular cylinder),
|
|
=
=
|
|
1 1
(a
(a
half
half
-
-
plane containing the z
plane containing the z
-
-
axis),
axis),
z=z
z=z
1 1
(a
(a
plane).
plane).

The base vectors are
The base vectors are
z
a a a

,

|
z a
a
a
z
increasing of direction in the r unit vecto a is

increasing of direction in the r unit vecto a is

increasing of direction in the r unit vecto a is

49
Lecture 1
Cylindrical Coordinates
Cylindrical Coordinates
(Contd)
(Contd)
x
y
z
P(
1
,|
1
,z
1
)
z
1
|
1

1
z
a

|
a

50
Lecture 1
Cylindrical Coordinates
Cylindrical Coordinates
(Contd)
(Contd)

The base vectors satisfy the following
The base vectors satisfy the following
relations:
relations:
|
|
|
a a a
a a a
a a a
z
z
z



=
=
=
z
a

|
a

z q p a a
pq q p
, , , ;

| o = = -
51
Lecture 1
Spherical Coordinates
Spherical Coordinates

The point
The point
P
P
(
(
r
r
1 1
,
,
u
u
1 1
,
,
|
|
1 1
)
)
is located as the
is located as the
intersection of three mutually perpendicular
intersection of three mutually perpendicular
surfaces:
surfaces:
r = r
r = r
1 1
(a sphere),
(a sphere),
u =
u =
u
u
1 1
(a cone),
(a cone),
and
and
|
|
=
=
|
|
1 1
(a half
(a half
-
-
plane containing the z
plane containing the z
-
-
axis).
axis).

The base vectors are
The base vectors are
| u
a a a
r

,

|
u
|
u
increasing of direction in the r unit vecto a is

increasing of direction in the r unit vecto a is

increasing of direction in the r unit vecto a is

a
a
r a
r
52
Lecture 1
Spherical Coordinates (Contd)
Spherical Coordinates (Contd)
x
y
z
P(r
1
,u
1
,|
1
)
|
1
r
1
u
a

r
a

|
a

u
1
53
Lecture 1
Spherical Coordinates (Contd)
Spherical Coordinates (Contd)

The base vectors satisfy the following
The base vectors satisfy the following
relations:
relations:
u |
| u
| u
a a a
a a a
a a a
R
r
r



=
=
=
|
a

u
a

r
a

| u o , , , ;

r q p a a
pq q p
= = -
54
Lecture 1
Spherical Coordinates (Contd)
Spherical Coordinates (Contd)
x
y
z
|
r
u
t | t t |
t u
s < < s
s s
< s
or 2 0
0
0 r
55
Lecture 1

Position vector:
Position vector:

Arbitrary function of position:
Arbitrary function of position:
Position Vector
Position Vector
r a
z a a
z a y a x a r
r
z
z y x

=
+ =
+ + =

( ) r f