UNIT -7 Tidal Power: Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion , Geothermal Energy Conversion

Tidal Power: Tides and waves as energy suppliers and their mechanics; fundamental characteristics of tidal power, harnessing tidal energy, limitations.

Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion: Principle of working, Rankine cycle, problems associated with OTEC. Geothermal Energy Conversion: Principle of working, types of geothermal station with schematic diagram, problems associated with geothermal conversion, scope of geothermal energy.

Outline
Renewable
Hydro Power Wind Energy

Oceanic Energy
Solar Power Geothermal Biomass

Sources of New Energy

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Boyle, Renewable Energy, Oxford University Press (2004)

Tidal Energy

Energy from the moon

Tides generated by the combination of the moon and suns gravitational forces Greatest affect in spring when moon and sun combine forces Bays and inlets amplify the height of the tide In order to be practical for energy production, the height difference needs to be at least 5 meters Only 40 sites around the world of this magnitude Overall potential of 3000 gigawatts from movement of tides

 The tidal power is generated by the gravitational pull of the Moon on water. Due to these gravitational forces the water level follows a periodic high and low. The height of the tide produced at a given location is the result of the changing positions of the Moon and Sun relative to the Earth coupled with the effects of Earth rotation and the local shape of the sea floor. The tidal energy generator uses this phenomenon to generate energy. The higher the height of the tide the more promising it is to harness tidal energy.

The monthly tidal cycle (29 days)

About every 7 days, Earth alternates between:
Spring tide
Alignment of Earth-Moon-Sun system (syzygy) Lunar and solar bulges constructively interfere Large tidal range

Neap tide
Earth-Moon-Sun system at right angles (quadrature) Lunar and solar bulges destructively interfere Small tidal range

Earth-Moon-Sun positions and the monthly tidal cycle

Spring Tide
Highest high tide and lowest low tide

Neap Tide
Moderate tidal range

Natural Tidal Bottlenecks

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Boyle, Renewable Energy, Oxford University Press (2004)

How it works
First generation, barrage-style tidal power plants Works by building Barrage to contain water after high tide, then water has to pass through a turbine to return to low tide Sites in France (La Rance), Canada (Annapolis), and Russia

Tidal power types

Tidal power can be classified into two main types: Tidal stream systems make use of the kinetic energy from the moving water currents to power turbines, in a similar way to wind mills use moving air. This method is gaining in popularity because of the lower cost and lower ecological impact. Barrages make use of the potential energy from the difference in height between high and low tides. Barrages suffer from the problems of very high civil infrastructure costs, few viable sites globally and environmental issues.

Second-generation tidal power plants

Barrage not need, limiting total costs Two types- vertical axis and horizontal axis Davis Hydro turbine.. Successfully tested in St. Lawrence Seaway Harness the energy of tidal streams More efficient because they allow for energy production on both the ebbing and surging tides One site has potential to equal the generating power of 3 nuclear power plants

Deeper Water Current Turbine

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Boyle, Renewable Energy, Oxford University Press (2004)

TIDAL ENERGY

Advantages:
Tidal power is completely independent of the precipitation

(rain) and its uncertainty, besides being inexhaustible. Large area of valuable land is not required. When a tidal power plant works in combination with thermal or hydro-electric system, peak power demand can be effectively met with.

Tidal power generation is free from pollution.

Disadvantages:
Due to variation in tidal range the output is not

uniform.
Since the turbines have to work on a wide range of

head variation (due to variable tide range) the plant

efficiency is affected.

There is a fear of machinery being corroded due to

corrosive sea water.

It is difficult to carry out construction in sea.

disadvantages
Presently costly
Expensive to build and maintain A 1085MW facility could cost as much as 1.2 billion dollars to construct and run

Connection to the grid Technology is not fully developed Barrage style only produces energy for about 10 hours out of the day Barrage style has environmental affects
Such as fish and plant migration Silt deposits Local tides change- affects still under study

Advantages
No pollution Renewable resource More efficient than wind because of the density of water Predictable source of energy vs. wind and solar Second generation has very few disadvantages
Does not affect wildlife Does not affect silt deposits Less costly both in building and maintenance

Wave Power

Wave Facts:

Waves are caused by a number of forces, i.e. wind, gravitational pull from the sun and moon, changes in atmospheric pressure, earthquakes etc. Waves created by wind are the most common waves. Unequal heating of the Earths surface generates wind, and wind blowing over water generates waves. This energy transfer results in a concentration of the energy involved: the initial solar power level of about 1 kW/m2 is concentrated to an average wave power level of 70kW/m of crest length. This figure rises to an average of 170 kW/m of crest length during the winter, and to more than 1 MW/m during storms. Wave energy performance measures are characterized by diffuse energy, enormous forces during storms, and variation over wide range in wave size, length, period, and direction. Wave energy is an irregular and oscillating low-frequency energy source that must be converted to a 60-Hertz frequency before it can be added to the electric utility grid.

World Wave Power Resources

World Energy Council 2001 Survey stated the "potential exploitable wave energy" resources worldwide to be 2 TW. For European waters the resource was estimated to be able to cover more than 50% of the total power consumption. The wave market is estimated at $32 billion in the United Kingdom and $800 billion worldwide. The United States has exhibited weak effort compared to overseas projects in Norway, Denmark, Japan and the United Kingdom. As of 1995, 685 kilowatts (kW) of grid-connected wave generating capacity was operating worldwide. This capacity comes from eight demonstration plants ranging in size from 350 kW to 20 kW. Until recently the commercial use of wave power has been limited to small systems of tens to hundreds of watts aboard generate power

Wave Concentration Effects

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Boyle, Renewable Energy, Oxford University Press (2004)

Wave Energy
Where does wave energy originate? Differential warming of the earth causes pressure differences in the atmosphere, which generate winds As winds move across the surface of open bodies of water, they transfer some of their energy to the water and create waves

Wave Energy
The amount of energy transferred and the size of the resulting wave depend on the wind speed the length of time for which the wind blows the distance over which the wind blows, or fetch Therefore, coasts that have exposure to the prevailing wind direction and that face long expanses of open ocean have the greatest wave energy levels.

How do we harness wave energy?

In order to extract this energy, wave energy conversion devices must create a system of reacting forces, in which two or more bodies move relative to each other, while at least one body interacts with the waves.
There are many ways that such a system could be configured.

Wave Energy Technologies

Waves retain energy differently depending on water depth Lose energy slowly in deep water Lose energy quickly as water becomes shallower because of friction between the moving water particles and the sea bed Wave energy conversion devices are designed for optimal operation at a particular depth range

Wave Energy Technologies

Therefore, devices can be characterized in terms of their placement or location. At the shoreline Near the shoreline Off-shore

One wave energy conversion system that has proven successful at each of these locations is the OSCILLATING WATER COLUMN.

 Oscillating Water Columns (OWC) These devices generate electricity from the wave-driven rise and fall of water in a cylindrical shaft. The rising and falling water column drives air into and out of the top of the shaft, powering an air-driven turbine. Floats or Pitching Devices These devices generate electricity from the bobbing or pitching action of a floating object. The object can be mounted to a floating raft or to a device fixed on the ocean floor. Wave Surge or Focusing Devices These shoreline devices, also called "tapered channel" systems, rely on a shore-mounted structure to channel and concentrate the waves, driving them into an elevated reservoir. These focusing surge devices are sizable barriers that channel large waves to increase wave height for redirection into elevated reservoirs.

Oscillating Water Column

An Oscillating Water Column (OWC) consists of a partially submerged structure that opens to the ocean below the water surface. This structure is called a wave collector.
This design creates a water column in the central chamber of the collector, with a volume of air trapped above it.

Oscillating Water Column

As a wave enters the collector, the surface of the water column rises and compresses the volume of air above it. The compressed air is forced into an aperture at the top of the chamber, moving past a turbine. As the wave retreats, the air is drawn back through the turbine due to the reduced pressure in the chamber.

Oscillating Water Column

The turning of the turbine drives a generator, producing electricity!

Oscillating Water Column

The type of turbine used is a key element to the conversion efficiency of an OWC.
Traditional turbines function by gas or liquid flowing in one direction and at a constant velocity. When the flow is not always from the same direction or at a constant velocity such as in the OWC traditional turbines become ineffective.

Wave Power Designs

Although many wave energy devices have been invented, only a small proportion have been tested and evaluated. Only a few of these have been tested at sea, in ocean waves, rather than in artificial wave tanks. Large scale offshore devices and small scale shoreline devices have been ocean tested. The total power of waves breaking on the world's coastlines is estimated at 2 to 3 million megawatts. In favorable locations, wave energy density can average 65 megawatts per mile of coastline.

Wave Energy
Oceanlinx

Oscillating Column Cross-Section

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Boyle, Renewable Energy, Oxford University Press (2004)

Floating Devices

The Salter Duck, Clam, Archimedes wave swing, and other floating wave energy devices generate electricity through the harmonic motion of the floating part of the device. In these systems, the devices rise and fall according to the motion of the wave and electricity is generated through their motion. The Salter Duck is able to produce energy very efficiently, however its development was stalled during the 1980s due to a miscalculation in the cost of energy production by a factor of 10 and it has only been in recent years when the technology was reassessed and the error identified.

Tapered Channel Wave Power

These shoreline systems consist of a tapered channel which feeds into a reservoir constructed on a cliff. The narrowing of the channel causes the waves to increase their amplitude (wave height) as they move towards the cliff face which eventually spills over the walls of the channel and into the reservoir which is positioned several meters above mean sea level. The kinetic energy of the moving wave is converted into potential energy as the water is stored in the reservoir. The water then passes through hydroelectric turbines on the way back to sea level thus generating electricity.

Tapered Channel (Tapchan)

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http://www.eia.doe.gov/kids/energyfacts/sources/renewable/ocean.html

Turbines for Wave Energy

Turbine used in Mighty Whale

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Wave Energy Power Distribution

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Boyle, Renewable Energy, Oxford University Press (2004)

Advantages:
It is relatively pollution free. It is a free and renewable energy source. After removal of power, the waves are in placed state. Wave-power devices do not require large land masses. Whenever there is a large wave activity, a string of devices have to be used. The system not only produces

electricity but also protects coast lines from the destructive

action of large waves, minimises erosion and help create artificial harbour.

Disadvantages:
Lack of dependability. Relative scarcity of accessible sites of large wave activity. The construction of conversion devices is relatively complicated.

There are unfavourable economic factors such as large

capital investment and costs of repair, replacement and maintenance.

Problems associated with wave energy

collection :
The collection of wave energy entails the following problems: The variation of frequency and amplitude makes it an unsteady source.

Devices, installed to collect and to transfer wave energy from

far off oceans, will have to with stand adverse weather conditions.

OTEC-OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY CONVERSION

OTEC Process
5. Heat extraction from cold-water sink to condense the working fluid in the condenser. 4. Expanding vapor drive the turbine, and electricity is created by a generator

Cycle begins again Return to step 2

2. Fluid pump pressurizes and pushes working fluid to evaporator

1. Power input to pumps to start process

3. Heat addition from the hotwater source used to evaporate the working fluid within the heat exchanger (Evaporator)

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Open cycle or Claude Cycle Or Steam Cycle

Closed Rankine cycle or vapour cycle or Anderson cycle

Hybrid cycle

Advantages
1. OTEC uses clean, renewable, natural resources. Warm surface seawater and cold water from the ocean depths replace fossil fuels to produce electricity. 2. Suitably designed OTEC plants will produce little or no carbon dioxide or other polluting chemicals.

3. OTEC systems can produce fresh water as well as electricity. This is a significant advantage in island areas where fresh water is limited.
4. There is enough solar energy received and stored in the warm tropical ocean surface layer to provide most, if not all, of present human energy needs. 5. The use of OTEC as a source of electricity will help reduce the state's almost complete dependence on imported fossil fuels.

Disadvantages
1. OTEC-produced electricity at present would cost more than electricity generated from fossil fuels at their current costs. 2. OTEC plants must be located where a difference of about 20 C occurs year round. Ocean depths must be available fairly close to shore-based facilities for economic operation. 3. No energy company will put money in this project because it only had been tested in a very small scale. 4. Construction of OTEC plants and lying of pipes in coastal waters may cause localized damage to reefs and near-shore marine ecosystems.

5. Construction of floating power plants is difficult.

6. Plant size is limited to about 100 MW due to large size of components. 7. Very heavy investment is required.

Geothermal Energy

AGENDA Geothermal Energy

Geothermal Overview Extracting Geothermal Energy Environmental Implications Economic Considerations Geothermal Installations Examples

Geothermal Overview

Geothermal in Context
Energy Source Total a Fossil Fuels 2000 98.961 84.965 2001 96.464 83.176 2002 97.952 84.070 2003 98.714 84.889 2004P 100.278 86.186

Coal
Coal Coke Net Imports Natural Gasb Petroleumc

22.580
0.065 23.916 38.404

21.952
0.029 22.861 38.333

21.980
0.061 23.628 38.401

22.713
0.051 23.069 39.047

22.918
0.138 23.000 40.130

Electricity Net Imports

Nuclear Electric Power Renewable Energy Conventional Hydroelectric Geothermal Energy Biomassd Solar Energy Wind Energy

0.115
7.862 6.158 2.811 0.317 2.907 0.066 0.057

0.075
8.033 5.328 2.242 0.311 2.640 0.065 0.070

0.078
8.143 5.835 2.689 0.328 2.648 0.064 0.105

0.022
7.959 6.082 2.825 0.339 2.740 0.064 0.115

0.039
8.232 6.117 2.725 0.340 2.845 0.063 0.143

U.S. Energy Consumption by Energy Source, 2000-2004 (Quadrillion Btu) http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/solar.renewables/page/geothermal/geothermal.html

Advantages of Geothermal

http://www.earthsci.org/mineral/energy/geother/geother.htm

Heat from the Earths Center

Earth's core maintains temperatures in excess of 5000C
Heat radual radioactive decay of elements

Heat energy continuously flows from hot core

Conductive heat flow Convective flows of molten mantle beneath the crust.

Mean heat flux at earth's surface

16 kilowatts of heat energy per square kilometer Dissipates to the atmosphere and space. Tends to be strongest along tectonic plate boundaries

Volcanic activity transports hot material to near the surface

Only a small fraction of molten rock actually reaches surface. Most is left at depths of 5-20 km beneath the surface,

Hydrological convection forms high temperature geothermal systems at shallow depths of 500-3000m.

Earth Temperature Gradient

http://www.geothermal.ch/eng/vision.html

Geysers
Clepsydra Geyser in Yellowstone

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geyser

Hot Springs

Hot springs in Steamboat Springs area.

http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/solar.renewables/page/geothermal/geothermal.html

Fumaroles
Clay Diablo Fumarole (CA)
White Island Fumarole New Zealand

http://lvo.wr.usgs.gov/cdf_main.htm

http://volcano.und.edu/vwdocs/volc_images/img_white_island_fumerole.html

Extracting Geothermal Energy

 Hydro thermal convective systems. These are again sub classified as:
(a) Vapour-dominated or dry steam fields. (b) Liquid-dominated system or wet steam fields, and

Geopressure resources. Petro-thermal or Hot dry rocks (HDR). Magma resources. Valcanoes.

Methods of Heat Extraction

http://www.geothermal.ch/eng/vision.html

Dry Steam Power Plants

Dry steam extracted from natural reservoir
180-225 C ( 356-437 F) 4-8 MPa (580-1160 psi) 200+ km/hr (100+ mph)

Steam is used to drive a turbo-generator Steam is condensed and pumped back into the ground Can achieve 1 kWh per 6.5 kg of steam
A 55 MW plant requires 100 kg/s of steam

Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, 2004

Dry Steam Schematic

Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, 2004

Single Flash Steam Power Plants

Steam with water extracted from ground Pressure of mixture drops at surface and more water flashes to steam Steam separated from water Steam drives a turbine Turbine drives an electric generator Generate between 5 and 100 MW Use 6 to 9 tonnes of steam per hour

Single Flash Steam Schematic

Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, 2004

Binary Cycle Power Plants

Low temps 100o and 150oC Use heat to vaporize organic liquid
E.g., iso-butane, iso-pentane

Use vapor to drive turbine

Causes vapor to condense Recycle continuously

Typically 7 to 12 % efficient 0.1 40 MW units common

http://www.worldenergy.org/wec-geis/publications/reports/ser/geo/geo.asp

Binary Cycle Schematic

Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, 2004

Double Flash Power Plants

Similar to single flash operation Unflashed liquid flows to low-pressure tank flashes to steam Steam drives a second-stage turbine
Also uses exhaust from first turbine

Increases output 20-25% for 5% increase in plant costs

Double Flash Schematic

Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, 2004

Hot Dry Rock Technology

Wells drilled 3-6 km into crust
Hot crystalline rock formations

Water pumped into formations Water flows through natural fissures picking up heat Hot water/steam returns to surface Steam used to generate power
http://www.ees4.lanl.gov/hdr/

Hot Dry Rock Technology

Fenton Hill plant

http://www.ees4.lanl.gov/hdr/

Soultz Hot Fractured Rock

Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, 2004

Geothermal Heat Pump

http://www.worldenergy.org/wec-geis/publications/reports/ser/geo/geo.asp

Technological Issues
Geothermal fluids can be corrosive
Contain gases such as hydrogen sulphide Corrosion, scaling

Requires careful selection of materials and diligent operating procedures Typical capacity factors of 85-95%

http://www.worldbank.org/html/fpd/energy/geothermal/technology.htm

Technology vs. Temperature

Reservoir Temperature Reservoir Fluid Common Use Technology commonly chosen

High Temperature >220oC (>430oF).

Water or Steam

Power Generation Direct Use Flash Steam Combined (Flash and Binary) Cycle Direct Fluid Use Heat Exchangers Heat Pumps Binary Cycle Direct Fluid Use Heat Exchangers Heat Pumps Direct Fluid Use Heat Exchangers

Intermediate Temperature 100-220oC (212 - 390oF). Low Temperature 50-150oC (120-300oF).

Water

Power Generation Direct Use Direct Use

Water

http://www.worldbank.org/html/fpd/energy/geothermal/technology.htm

Geothermal Performance

Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, 2004

Environmental Implications

Environmental Impacts
Land
Vegetation loss Soil erosion Landslides

Water
Watershed impact Damming streams Hydrothermal eruptions Lower water table Subsidence

Air
Slight air heating Local fogging

Noise

http://www.worldbank.org/html/fpd/energy/geothermal/assessment.htm

Renewable?
Heat depleted as ground cools Not steady-state
Earths core does not replenish heat to crust quickly enough

Example:
Iceland's geothermal energy could provide 1700 MW for over 100 years, compared to the current production of 140 MW

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geothermal

Economics of Geothermal

Cost Factors
Temperature and depth of resource Type of resource (steam, liquid, mix) Available volume of resource Chemistry of resource Permeability of rock formations Size and technology of plant Infrastructure (roads, transmission lines)

http://www.worldbank.org/html/fpd/energy/geothermal/cost_factor.htm

Costs of Geothermal Energy

Costs highly variable by site
Dependent on many cost factors

High exploration costs High initial capital, low operating costs

Fuel is free

Significant exploration & operating risk

Adds to overall capital costs Risk premium
http://www.worldbank.org/html/fpd/energy/geothermal/

Geothermal Installations
Examples

Geothermal Power Examples

Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, 2004

Geothermal Power Generation

World production of 8 GW
2.7 GW in US

The Geyers (US) is worlds largest site

Produces 2 GW

Other attractive sites

Rift region of Kenya, Iceland, Italy, France, New Zealand, Mexico, Nicaragua, Russia, Phillippines, Indonesia, Japan
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geothermal

Geothermal Energy Plant

Geothermal energy plant in Iceland

http://www.wateryear2003.org/en/

Geothermal Well Testing

Geothermal well testing, Zunil, Guatemala

http://www.geothermex.com/es_resen.html

Heber Geothermal Power Station

52kW electrical generating capacity

http://www.ece.umr.edu/links/power/geotherm1.htm

Geysers Geothermal Plant

The Geysers is the largest producer of geothermal power in the world.

http://www.ece.umr.edu/links/power/geotherm1.htm

Scope of geothermal
Geothermal heat pumps Space heating Greenhouse and covered ground heating Aquaculture pond and raceway heating Agricultural crop drying Industrial process heat

Snow melting and space cooling

Bathing and swimming

Geothermal Summary

http://www.earthsci.org/mineral/energy/geother/geother.htm

Single Flash Plant Schematic

http://www.worldbank.org/html/fpd/energy/geothermal/technology.htm

http://www.worldbank.org/html/fpd/energy/geothermal/technology.htm

Binary Cycle Power Plant

http://www.worldenergy.org/wec-geis/publications/reports/ser/geo/geo.asp

Flash Steam Power Plant

http://www.worldenergy.org/wec-geis/publications/reports/ser/geo/geo.asp