TAMADUN ISLAM DAN TAMADUN ASIA

TWO FIGURES IN INDIA CIVILISATION

PREPARED BY : TENGKU NOR ANIS BINTI TENGKU ZAMRI NURUL FATIHAH BINTI MOHD ZULKEFFLI MOHD ARIFF BIN ABDULLAH NUR RAIHAN BINTI AHMAD FIRDAUS NIK NURRAHMATUNISSA BINTI NIK RAHIM LECTURER

: MR.ZAMRI BIN RAJAB

ARYABHATA

Name While there is a tendency to misspell his name as "Aryabhatta" by analogy with other names having the "bhatta" suffix, his name is properly spelled Aryabhata: every astronomical text spells his name thus, including Brahmagupta's references to him "in more than a hundred places by name".

Birth

Aryabhata mentions in the Aryabhatiya that it was composed 3,600 years into the Kali Yuga, when he was 23 years old. This corresponds to 499 CE, and implies that he was born in 476 CE .
Aryabhata provides no information about his place of birth. The only information comes from Bhskara I, who describes Aryabhata as makya, "one belonging to the amaka country." It is widely attested that, during the Buddha's time, a branch of the Amaka people settled in the region between the Narmada and Godavari rivers in central India, today the South GujaratNorth Maharashtra region.

Aryabhata is believed to have been born there. However, early Buddhist texts describe Ashmaka as being further south, in dakshinapath or the Deccan, while other texts describe the Ashmakas as having fought Alexander, which would put them further north.

Work
It is fairly certain that, at some point, he went to Kusumapura for advanced studies and that he lived there for some time.Both Hindu and Buddhist tradition, as well as Bhskara I (CE 629), identify Kusumapura as Paliputra, modern Patna.A verse mentions that Aryabhata was the head of an institution (kulapa) at Kusumapura, and, because the university of Nalanda was in Pataliputra at the time and had an astronomical observatory, it is speculated that Aryabhata might have been the head of the Nalanda university as well.Aryabhata is also reputed to have set up an observatory at the Sun temple in Taregana, Bihar.

Other hypotheses
It was suggested that Aryabhata may have been from Kerala, but K. V. Sarma, an authority on Kerala's astronomical tradition, disagreed and pointed out several errors in this hypothesis. Aryabhata mentions "Lanka" on several occasions in the Aryabhatiya, but his "Lanka" is an abstraction, standing for a point on the equator at the same longitude as his Ujjayini.

Works Aryabhata is the author of several treatises on mathematics and astronomy, some of which are lost. His major work, Aryabhatiya, a compendium of mathematics and astronomy, was extensively referred to in the Indian mathematical literature and has survived to modern times. The mathematical part of the Aryabhatiya covers arithmetic, algebra, plane trigonometry, and spherical trigonometry. It also contains continued fractions, quadratic equations, sums-of-power series, and a table of sines.

The Arya-siddhanta, a lost work on astronomical computations, is known through the writings of Aryabhata's contemporary, Varahamihira, and later mathematicians and commentators, includingBrahmagupta and Bhaskara I. This work appears to be based on the older Surya Siddhanta and uses the midnight-day reckoning, as opposed to sunrise in Aryabhatiya. It also contained a description of several astronomical instruments: the gnomon (shanku-yantra), a shadow instrument (chhAyA-yantra), possibly anglemeasuring devices, semicircular and circular (dhanuryantra /chakra-yantra), a cylindrical stick yasti-yantra, an umbrella-shaped device called the chhatra-yantra, and water clocks of at least two types, bow-shaped and cylindrical.[3]

A third text, which may have survived in the Arabic translation, is Al ntf or Al-nanf. It claims that it is a translation by Aryabhata, but the Sanskrit name of this work is not known. Probably dating from the 9th century, it is mentioned by the Persian scholar and chronicler of India, Ab Rayhn al-Brn.

Aryabhatiya Direct details of Aryabhata's work are known only from the Aryabhatiya. The name "Aryabhatiya" is due to later commentators. Aryabhata himself may not have given it a name. His disciple Bhaskara I calls it Ashmakatantra (or the treatise from the Ashmaka). It is also occasionally referred to asArya-shatas-aShTa (literally, Aryabhata's 108), because there are 108 verses in the text. It is written in the very terse style typical of sutra literature, in which each line is an aid to memory for a complex system. Thus, the explication of meaning is due to commentators. The text consists of the 108 verses and 13 introductory verses, and is divided into four pdas or chapters:

Gitikapada: (13 verses): large units of time kalpa, manvantra, and yugawhich present a cosmology different from earlier texts such as Lagadha's Vedanga Jyotisha (c. 1st century BCE). There is also a table of sines (jya), given in a single verse. The duration of the planetary revolutions during a mahayuga is given as 4.32 million years.

Ganitapada (33 verses): covering mensuration (ketra vyvahra), arithmetic and geometric progressions, gnomon / shadows (shanku-chhAyA), simple, quadratic, simultaneous, andindeterminate equations (kuTTaka)

Kalakriyapada (25 verses): different units of time and a method for determining the positions of planets for a given day, calculations concerning the intercalary month (adhikamAsa),kShaya-tithis, and a seven-day week with names for the days of week.

Golapada (50 verses): Geometric/trigonometric aspects of the celestial sphere, features of the ecliptic, celestial equator, node, shape of the earth, cause of day and night, rising ofzodiacal signs on horizon, etc. In addition, some versions cite a few colophons added at the end, extolling the virtues of the work, etc.

The Aryabhatiya presented a number of innovations in mathematics and astronomy in verse form, which were influential for many centuries. The extreme brevity of the text was elaborated in commentaries by his disciple Bhaskara I (Bhashya, c. 600 CE) and by Nilakantha Somayaji in hisAryabhatiya Bhasya, (1465 CE).

MATHEMATICS
Place value system and zero

Approximation of
Mensuration and trigonometry

Inderminate of equations
Algebra

ASTRONOMY

-Motions of the solar system

- Eclipses
- Sidereal periods -Heliocentrism

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi Born 2 October 1869 Porbandar, Bombay Presidency,British India 30 January 1948 (aged 78) New Delhi, Union of India Assassination (three bullets in the chest) Rajghat, New Delhi, India Indian Mahatma Gandhi, Bapu University College London,University of London Prominent figure of Indian independence movement Propounding the philosophy of Satyagraha and Ahimsa Hinduism Kasturba Gandhi Harilal Manilal Ramdas Devdas Putlibai Gandhi (Mother) Karamchand Gandhi (Father)

Died Cause of death Resting place Nationality Other names Alma mater Known for

Religion Spouse Children

Parents

PRINCIPLES, PRACTICES AND BELIEFS

-Truth

-Nonviolence
-Vegetarianism - Nai Talim, Basic Education -Brahmacharya,sexuality -Simplicity

-Faith
-Swaraj ,self rule

Literary works

Young India, a journal published by Gandhi Gandhi was a prolific writer. For decades he edited several newspapers includingHarijan in Gujarati, in Hindi and in the English language; Indian Opinion while in South Africa and, Young India, in English, and Navajivan, a Gujarati monthly, on his return to India. Later, Navajivan was also published in Hindi. In addition, he wrote letters almost every day to individuals and newspapers. However, Andrew Roberts writes that 'we cannot be certain that he really made all the pronouncements attributed to him, since, according to Mr. Lelyveld, Gandhi insisted that journalists file "not the words that had actually come from his mouth but a version he authorized after his sometimes heavy editing of the transcripts."'.

Gandhi also wrote several books including his autobiography, An Autobiography of My Experiments with Truth ((Gujart "

")), of which he bought the entire first edition to make

sure it was reprinted.His other autobiographies included: Satyagraha in
South Africa about his struggle there, Hind Swaraj or Indian Home Rule, a political pamphlet, and a paraphrase in Gujarati of John Ruskin's Unto This Last.This last essay can be considered his programme on economics. He also wrote extensively on vegetarianism, diet and health, religion, social reforms, etc. Gandhi usually wrote in Gujarati, though he also revised the Hindi and English translations of his books

Gandhi's complete works were published by the Indian government under the nameThe Collected Works of

Mahatma Gandhi in the 1960s. The writings comprise

about 50,000 pages published in about a hundred volumes. In 2000, a revised edition of the complete works sparked a controversy, as Gandhian followers argue that the government incorporated the changes for political purposes. The Indian government later withdrew the revised edition.

LEGACY AND DEPICTIONS IN POPULAR CULTURE

The word Mahatma, while often mistaken for Gandhi's given name in the West, is taken from the Sanskrit words maha (meaning Great) and atma (meaning Soul).Rabindranath Tagore is said to have accorded the title to Gandhi. In his autobiography, Gandhi nevertheless explains that he never valued the title, and was often pained by it.

Followers and international influence Mahatma Gandhi on a 1969 postage stamp of the Soviet Union. Mahatma Gandhi District in Houston, Texas Gandhi influenced important leaders and political movements. Leaders of the civil rights movement in the United States, including Martin Luther King and James Lawson, drew from the writings of Gandhi in the development of their own theories about non-violence.Anti-apartheid activist and former President of South Africa, Nelson Mandela, was inspired by Gandhi. Others includeKhan Abdul Ghaffar Khan, Steve Biko,Aung San Suu Kyi, and Benigno Aquino, Jr. (the Philippine opposition leader during the dictatorship of Ferdinand Marcosand father of current Philippine presidentBenigno Aquino III).

In his early years, the former President of South Africa Nelson Mandela was a follower of the non-violent resistance philosophy of Gandhi. Bhana and Vahed commented on these events as "Gandhi inspired succeeding

generations of South African activists

seeking to end White rule. This legacy

connects him toNelson Mandela...in a sense

Mandela completed what Gandhi started."

Gandhi's life and teachings inspired many who specifically referred to

Gandhi as their mentor or who dedicated their lives to spreading Gandhi's ideas. In Europe, Romain Rolland was the first to discuss Gandhi in his 1924 book Mahatma Gandhi, and Brazilian anarchist and feminist Maria Lacerda de Moura wrote about Gandhi in her work on pacifism. In 1931, notable European physicist Albert Einstein exchanged written letters with Gandhi, and

called him "a role model for the generations to come" in a later writing
about him.Lanza del Vasto went to India in 1936 intending to live with Gandhi; he later returned to Europe to spread Gandhi's philosophy and founded the Community of the Ark in 1948 (modelled after Gandhi's ashrams). Madeleine Slade (known as "Mirabehn") was the daughter of a British admiral who spent much of her adult life in India as a devotee of Gandhi.

In addition, the British musician John

Lennon referred to Gandhi when discussing his views on non-violence. At the Cannes Lions International Advertising Festival in 2007, former U.S. Vice-President and environmentalist Al

Gore spoke of Gandhi's influence on him.

President of the United States Barack Obama in an address to a Joint Session of theParliament of India said that:

"I am mindful that I might not be standing before you today, as President of the United

States, had it not been for Gandhi and the

message he shared with America and the world." Barack Obama in an address to a Joint Session of the Parliament of India, 2010

Global holidays
On 15 June 2007, it was announced that the "United Nations General Assembly" has "unanimously

adopted" a resolution declaring 2 October as

"the International Day of Non-Violence."30 January of every year is observed the School Day of Nonviolence and Peace in schools of many countries. In countries with a Southern Hemisphere school calendar, it can be observed on 30 March.

Awards Time magazine named Gandhi the Man of the Year in 1930. Gandhi was also the runner-up to Albert Einstein as "Person of the Century at the end of 1999. Einstein said of Gandhi:

Monument to Mahatma Gandhi in New Belgrade, Serbia. On the monument is written "Non-violence is the essence of all religions".

Mahatma Gandhi's life achievement stands unique in political history. He has invented a completely new and humane means for the liberation war of an oppressed country, and practised it with greatest energy and

devotion. The moral influence he had on the conciously thinking human

being of the entire civilized world will probably be much more lasting than it seems in our time with its overestimation of brutal violent forces. Because lasting will only be the work of such statesmen who wake up and strengthen the moral power of their people through their example and educational works. We may all be happy and grateful that destiny gifted us with such an enlightened contemporary, a role model

for the generations to come.

Time Magazine named The 14th Dalai Lama, Lech Wasa, Martin Luther King, Cesar Chavez, Aung San Suu Kyi, Benigno Aquino, Jr., Desmond Tutu, and Nelson Mandela as Children of Gandhi and his spiritual heirs to non-violence.TheGovernment of India awards the annual Gandhi Peace Prize to distinguished social workers,

world leaders and citizens. Nelson Mandela, the leader of

South Africa's struggle to eradicate racial discrimination and segregation, is a prominent non-Indian recipient. In

2011, Time magazine named Gandhi as one of the top 25

political icons of all time.

Gandhi never received the Nobel Peace Prize, although he was nominated five times between 1937 and 1948, including the first-ever nomination by the American Friends Service Committee, though he made the short list only twice, in 1937 and 1947. Decades later, the Nobel Committee publicly declared its regret for the omission, and admitted to deeply divided nationalistic

opinion denying the award.Gandhi was nominated in 1948 but was

assassinated before nominations closed.

That year, the committee chose not to award the

peace prize stating that "there was no suitable living candidate" and later research shows that the possibility of awarding the prize posthumously to Gandhi was discussed and that the reference to no suitable living candidate was to Gandhi.When the 14th Dalai Lama was awarded the Prize in 1989, the chairman of the committee

said that this was "in part a tribute to the memory

of Mahatma Gandhi."

FILM AND LITERATURE

Mahatma Gandhi has been portrayed in film, literature, and in the theatre. Ben Kingsley portrayed Gandhi in the 1982 film Gandhi, which won the Academy Award for Best Picture. Gandhi is also a central theme in the 2006 Bollywood film Lage Raho Munna Bhai. The 2007 film, Gandhi, My Father explores the relationship between Gandhi and his son Harilal. The 1996 film, The Making of the Mahatma, documents Gandhi's time in South Africa.

THE END