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June 2001 Copyright 2001 Global Wireless Education Consortium RT-RFA 1

RF Antenna
(RT-RFA)
June 2001 Copyright 2001 Global Wireless Education Consortium RT-RFA 2
RT-RFA
Copyright 2001 Global Wireless Education Consortium

All rights reserved. This module, comprising presentation slides with notes,
exercises, projects and Instructor Guide, may not be duplicated in any way
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Trademarked names appear throughout this module. All trademarked names
have been used with the permission of their owners.

June 2001 Copyright 2001 Global Wireless Education Consortium RT-RFA 3
RT-RFA
Partial support for this curriculum material
was provided by the National Science Foundation's
Course, Curriculum, and Laboratory Improvement
Program under grant DUE-9972380 and Advanced
Technological Education Program under grant
DUE-9950039.

GWEC EDUCATION PARTNERS: This material is
subject to the legal License Agreement signed by your
institution. Please refer to this License Agreement for
restrictions of use.

June 2001 Copyright 2001 Global Wireless Education Consortium RT-RFA 4
Table of Contents
Overview 5
Learning Objectives 6
Antennas as Part of All Communications Systems 7
Fundamental Antenna Characteristics 12
Antenna Radiation Patterns 19
Antenna Types 27
Antenna Configuration Requirements 49
Signal Coverage Problems 56
Advanced System Antennas 63
Antenna Covers and Support Structures 71
Contributors 76
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Overview
How antennas transmit and receive signals

Fundamental characteristics of antennas

Types and features of antennas

Signal coverage problems and how to overcome them

How to perform return loss measurement and antenna
gain measurement
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Learning Objectives
Explain how an antenna transmits and receives signals
Explain fundamental characteristics of antennas
including radiated power, antenna gain, beam width,
and front-back ratio
Describe features of different types of antennas
Describe the different types of radiation patterns
Explain why and how to measure impedance
Explain strategies to address signal coverage problems
Explain antenna diversity and isolation strategies
Perform a return loss measurement on an antenna
Perform an antenna gain measurement

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Antennas as Part of All
Communications
Systems
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Antenna System
Components
Transmit antenna
Receive antenna
Duplexer
Multicoupler
Combiner
Isolator
Tuning cavities
Cabling

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Antenna Operation
Antenna - a series of metal wires, rods, or other shapes
Transmits when an electric current of radio frequency passes
through it
Current generates electromagnetic field around
antenna
Electromagnetic field moves outward from antenna
At receiver antenna, does same thing in reverse
Tuned to a particular radio wavelength ()
Simple fraction or multiple of that length: /2, /4, etc.
Most common length is one-half a wavelength, or /2
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Antennas, Frequency,
and Wavelength
Resonant length changes with frequency and
wavelength of electric signal
The higher the frequency, the shorter the wavelength, and the
shorter the required antenna
The lower the frequency, the longer the wavelength, and the
longer the required antenna
Cellular band antenna
Wavelength for cellular telephone transmission is about 0.33 m
Length of a cellular antenna should be 0.165 m (/2)

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Assorted Facts
Antenna Radiation Pattern
Same radiation pattern and gain for transmit and receive antenna
Transceiver
Transmitter and receiver electronics housed in a single box
Generally use a single antenna for both
Impedance Match
Coaxial cable must be terminated with characteristic impedance for
maximum power to be passed to antenna
If not, reflections will reduce power passed to antenna and cause
protection circuitry in transmitter to reduce its output power
RF Transmission Planning
Optimizes signal strength received by base station and mobile station
regardless of their positions in the network
Choice and configuration of antenna system plays an important role
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Fundamental
Antenna
Characteristics
June 2001 Copyright 2001 Global Wireless Education Consortium RT-RFA 13
Radiated Power
Mean power received at any large distance is calculated by the
Friis free-space equation:




P
t
= transmitted power
P
r
(d) = received power, a function of transmitter-receiver distance
G
t
= transmitter antenna gain
G
r
= receiver antenna gain
d = transmitter-receiver separation in meters
L = miscellaneous loss factor for loss not related to propagation
L = 1 means no loss
L > 1 means loss
= wavelength in meters
L d
G G P
d P
r t t
r
2 2
2
) 4 (
) (
t

=
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Antenna Bandwidth
Range of frequencies radiated where lowest and
highest frequencies have radiated power that is 3 dB
less than the radiated power at frequency with
maximum power, f(max)
Upper frequency, f(up), is frequency above f(max) where power
is 3 dB lower than f(max)
Lower frequency, f(low), is frequency below f(max) where
power is 3 dB lower than f(max)
As a percent, B(p), of center frequency, f(ctr)
% 100 -
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
ctr
low up
p
f
f f
B
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Antenna Gain
Ratio of antennas maximum radiation intensity to
maximum radiation intensity from a reference antenna with
same input power
dBi If reference antenna is isotropic source of 100% efficiency
dBd If reference antenna is simple dipole of typical efficiency
Gdip (gain with respect to dipole antenna) is 2.15 dB less than Gi
(gain with respect to isotropic antenna)
Antenna gain, G
ant
, is a function of wavelength


A
e
= Effective antenna area

2
4

t
e
ant
A
G =
physical
ap e
A A c =
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Antenna Beam Width
Antenna achieves gain by concentrating its radiation
pattern in a certain direction
The greater the gain, the narrower the beam width
Beam width is width of radiated pattern where signal
strength is one-half that of maximum signal strength
At this point, signal is 3 dB less than that of the maximum
Angle between left and right points that are 3 dB down from
maximum is beam angle or beam width
For unidirectional antennas, resulting major lobe of
radiation pattern has a certain width
Common beam widths for cellular antennas: 60, 90, and 120.
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Antenna Front-Back
Ratio
Measure of antennas ability to focus radiated power in
intended direction successfully
And not interfere with other antennas behind it
Referred to as f-b ratio or f/b ratio
Ratio of radiated power in intended direction to radiated
power in opposite direction
Ratio of the two gains is the f/b ratio:
180
0
P
P
ratio f/b =
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Frequency Re-Use
7
6
1
2
3
4
5
7
6
1
2
3
4
5
7
6
1
2
3
4
5
Same frequencies used
repeatedly in all
directions
Ability to radiate power in
desired direction is
critical
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Antenna Radiation
Patterns
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Isotropic Radiation
Pattern
Characteristics
Completely non-directional antenna
Radiates and receives equally well in all directions
Theoretical point source or receiver
Radiation pattern is spherical

Exists only as a mathematical concept
There is no preferential radiation in one direction

Used as a reference to specify gain of a practical
antenna

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Omnidirectional
Radiation Pattern
Horizontal Pattern Vertical Pattern
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Unidirectional Radiation
Pattern
Horizontal Pattern Vertical Pattern

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Radiated Power
Compared
2.15
dB
dBi
dBd
Practical antenna
Theoretical halfwave dipole antenna Ideal isotropic radiator
2.15
dB
dBi
dBd
Practical antenna
Theoretical halfwave dipole antenna Ideal isotropic radiator
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Properties of
Unidirectional Antennas
Provide increased gain in a limited direction

Multiply use of separate channels by virtue of enabling
sectorization

Do not overcome major disadvantages of
omnidirectional antennas such as co-channel
interference
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Antenna Polarization
Polarization is an important property of a radio wave
Radio waves have magnetic field H & electrical field E
Orientation of electrical field determines polarization
If electrical field is vertical, radio wave is polarized vertically
If electrical field is horizontal, radio wave is polarized
horizontally
Antenna of receiver should be oriented in same
direction as polarization of transmitter antenna
Mobile antennas should be in the same orientation for
best reception
This is not always possible with hand-held phones
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Voltage Standing Wave
Ratio (VSWR)
Ratio of maximum voltage to minimum voltage of
standing wave along transmission line
Measure of impedance match between antenna and
transmission line or coaxial cable
The closer VSWR is to one, the greater
the efficiency of electrical power transfer
Formula
Pr = Power, reflected
Pi = Power, incident

i
r
i
r
P
P
1
P
P
1
VSWR

+
=
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Antenna Types




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Radiation Pattern of
Half-wave Dipole
Antenna



3-D view
Vertical section Horizontal section
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Omnidirectional
Antennas
Omnidirectional antenna Hertz antenna

1
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Marconi Antenna

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Omnidirectional
Antenna Limitations
Radiates and receives equally well in all directions in
the horizontal plane
Signal power spread uniformly and only small percentage of
radiated power reaches receiver
Receiving antenna receives signals equally well from all
directions in horizontal plane
For mobile transmitter to be distinguished, it must be stronger
than other signals and the background noise
Limited bandwidth efficiency
Very limited re-use of frequencies in adjoining areas
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Radiating Coaxial Cable
Antenna
RF in from transmitter
RF out (terminated)
Radiating Coaxial Cable Antenna
Radiating Cable Radiation Pattern
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Multi-antenna System
Examples
Pair of directional antennas mounted in different
directions
Radiation patterns point in opposite directions

Series of antennas around a given building
Used when omnidirectional antennas would not be effective

Series of antennas located on the side of a building
Minimizes interference with other receivers

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Panel Antennas
Transmitter
Substrate
Radiating
panel
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Unidirectional Antennas
Referred to as beam antennas
Focus beams in one direction
Concentrate radiated power into a beam while
minimizing emission in other directions
Classifications:
Linear
Logarithmic
Parasitic
Broadband antenna
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Unidirectional Antennas
Traveling-wave Wire Antenna
Folded Dipole Antenna
Turnstile Antenna
Loop Antenna
Rhombic Antenna
Yagi-Uda Antenna
Log Periodic Antenna
Mobile Antenna
Sector Antenna



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Traveling-wave Wire
Antenna
Reflected
wave
Dipole
antenna
Incident
wave
Resonant wave of
wavelength antenna
Reflected
wave
Incident
wave
Antenna
Traveling wave for
non-simple antenna
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Folded Dipole Antenna
Beam
Driven element
length =
Reflector
length = / 2 + 5%
Folded Dipole
Radiation pattern
Folded dipole antenna
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Turnstile Antenna

Turnstile antenna
Radiation pattern

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Loop Antenna
Loop antenna
Radiation pattern in
horizontal plane
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Rhombic Antenna
o
o
o
o
800
O
Preferred
direction of
radiation
o
o
o
o
800
O
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Rhombic Antenna
Radiation Pattern

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Yagi-Uda Antenna
Yagi-Uda
Antenna
Director
Driven element
Reflector
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Yagi-Uda Antenna
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Log Periodic Antenna
All elements driven by transmitter

All elements driven but not active at same frequency

Has broad frequency response

Operates on more than one frequency


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Mobile Antennas:
Collinear Gain Antenna
1/2
1/4
Low-gain antenna
Two types
- Through-the-glass
- Standard mount
Have upper and lower portion
separated by phase matching coil


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Sector Antennas
1
2
0

120
1
2
0

6
0

6
0

6
0
6
0

6
0

6
0

3-sector cell
6-sector cell
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Sector Antennas
Realistic antenna coverage
in 6-sector cell
Antenna overlap
in 6-sector cell
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Antenna Configuration
Requirements
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Antenna Configuration
Requirements
Antenna separation
Diversity
Isolation
Interference
Radiation patterns not distorted by obstacles or
reflections
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Space Diversity

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Polarization Diversity

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Isolation
Needed to avoid distortion due to intermodulation
Need to fulfill these isolation values
TX RX isolation > 30 dB
TX TX isolation > 30 dB
Horizontal physical separation requirements
30 dB isolation: 11.5
800 MHz: 10 feet
1900 MHz: 6 feet
Vertical separation requirement for antenna is 0.2 meter

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Antenna Downtilt
Beam of vertically-
mounted antenna
Beam of vertically-mounted-
antenna with tilted beam
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Antenna Height

Reducing antenna height by 50% will reduce average
received signal by 6 dB

Repositioning transmit and/or receive antenna can help
maintain system balance
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Signal Coverage
Problems
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Signal Coverage
Problems
Design problems
Maintenance problems
System maturation
Site location and geometry
Shadows in pattern
Nulls in pattern
Intermodulation, co-channel, and adjacent channel
interference problems


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Resolving Signal
Coverage Problems
Reduce antenna height

Downtilt the antenna

Use higher or lower gain antenna

Use antenna with wider or narrower horizontal or
vertical beam width
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Return Loss of an
Antenna
Power difference between incident and reflected wave
in transmission line feeding the antenna

3 dB return loss means reflected power is half of
incident power

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Interference
Multipath condition
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Interference
time
S
i
g
n
a
l

A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
+
-
Non-fade period
Fading
Rayleigh fading
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Co-Channel Interference
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Advanced System
Antennas
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Advanced Antenna
Systems
Are expensive
Increase cell coverage and capacity without building
additional sites
Examples
Multi-beam antenna systems
Smart antenna systems


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Multi-Beam Antennas
Standard cell divided into 18 microsectors
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Smart Antenna Systems
Fixed Beam Strategy Adaptive Beam Strategy
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Smart Antenna Systems
Time division duplex (TDD) communication systems
transmit and receive on same frequency
Frequency division duplex (FDD) transmit and receive
on separate frequencies
Capacity for frequency reuse is greater than a standard
cell system
Power needed for radio beam is less than for fixed
beam strategy
Use code division multiple access method to balance
the traffic load
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Traffic Load Balancing
Smart Antenna Systems
Cell with unbalanced load
Cell with balanced load
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Handling Capacity of
Smart Antenna Systems
Adaptive area
Switched beam area
Conventional
sectorization area
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Switched Beam versus
Adaptive Array Systems
Factors to consider
Interference suppression
Range and coverage
Spatial division multiple access (SDMA)
Enables wireless system to efficiently use available frequencies
where customers are located
Creates a sector for each receiver while maximizing signal
strength at receiver and minimizing interference
Uses multiple antennas to combine signals in space at location of
receiver
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Antenna Covers and
Support Structures
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Antenna Covers and
Support Structures
Antenna covers
Protect antenna element from weather
Make antenna more aesthetically pleasing

Types of support structures
Self-supporting towers
Guyed towers
Monopole
Camouflaged towers
Existing structures
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Antenna Support
Structures
Self-supporting towers
Large 3-D framework of galvanized girders
Antenna may be placed at top or any level of tower based on
transmission requirements

Guyed towers
Made of crisscrossing steel girders
Held in place by guy wires that form a 15 degree vertical angle
Antenna may be placed at top or any level of tower based on
transmission requirements
June 2001 Copyright 2001 Global Wireless Education Consortium RT-RFA 74
Antenna Support
Structures
Monopole with 3-sector head
Requires less land area
and is more aesthetically
pleasing than other structures

Antenna placement depends
on transmission requirements
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Antenna Support
Structures
Camouflaged towers
Existing support structure
Buildings
Water towers
Electric towers
Light pole
Highway signs
FAA identifies special lighting and/or safety requirement
FCC specifies power allowed based on various factors
Terrain
Frequencies used
Other radio uses in the area

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Industry Contributors
AT&T Wireless (http://www.attwireless.com)
Ericsson (http://www.ericsson.com)
LCC International, Inc. (http://www.lcc.com)
Motorola (http://www.motorola.com)
Nortel Networks (http://www.nortel.com)
Northeast Center for Telecommunications
Technologies(http://nctt.org/index2.htm)
RF Globalnet (http://www.rfglobalnet.com)

The following companies provided materials and
resource support for this module:
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Industry Contributors,
cont.
Space 2000 (http://www.cdmaonline.com)
Telcordia Technologies, Inc (http://www.telcordia.com)
Verizon (http://www.verizon.com)

The following companies provided materials and
resource support for this module:
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Individual Contributors
The following individuals and their organization or
institution provided materials, resources, and development
input for this module:
Dr. Chaouki Abdallah
University of New Mexico
http://www.unm.edu
Dr. Jamil Ahmed
British Columbia Institute of Technology
http://www.bcit.ca
Dr. John Baldwin
South Central Technical College
http://Jbaldwin@means.net




June 2001 Copyright 2001 Global Wireless Education Consortium RT-RFA 79
Individual Contributors,
cont.
Dr. Derrek Dunn
North Carolina A&T State University
http://www.ncat.edu
Mr. Robert Elms
ACRE Engineering Services
http://Rielms@myexcel.com
Mr. Stuart D. MacPherson
Durban Institute of Technology
Dr. James Masi
Springfield Technical Community College
http://www.stcc.mass.edu/nsindex.asp
June 2001 Copyright 2001 Global Wireless Education Consortium RT-RFA 80
Individual Contributors,
cont.
Ms. Annette Muga
Ericsson
http://www.ericsson.com
Dr. Dave Voltmer
Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology
http://www.rose-hulman.edu

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