Density ()

density = mass volume =m/V

unit = kg m-3
Note: 1 g cm-3 is the same as 1000 kg m-3

Density examples
density / kg m-3
Interstellar medium

density / kg m-3

10-25 to 10-15

hydrogen helium air

wood (average)

0.0989 0.179
1.29 700

lithium water plastics aluminium

0.534
1000
850 to 1400

iron lead mercury uranium gold osmium Suns core

neutron star

7 900
11 300 13 500

19 100
19 300 22 610 150 000 1017

2 700

black hole

> 4 x 1017

Question
Calculate the weight of a gold ingot of dimensions (20 x 10 x 4) cm

Complete: Answers
density mass volume

240 g
3000 kg m-3 0.80 g cm-3 9 kg 4500 kg

40 cm3

80 cm3 0.003 m3

Hookes law
The force (F ) needed to stretch a spring is directly proportional to the extension (L ) of a spring from its natural length.

F L
Adding a constant of proportionality:

F = k L
k is called the spring constant The spring constant is the force required to produce an extension of one metre. unit = Nm-1

Elastic limit
Up to a certain extension if the force is removed the spring will return to its original length. The spring is said to be behaving elastically.

If this critical extension is exceeded, known as the elastic limit, the spring will be permanently stretched.
Plastic behaviour then occurs and Hookes law is no longer obeyed by the spring.

Question
A spring of natural length 15cm is extended by 3cm by a force of 6N. Calculate (a) the spring constant and (b) the length of the spring if a force of 18N is applied.

Tensile stress ()
A stretching force is also called a tensile force. Tensile stress = tensile force cross-section area =F/A unit Pa (pascal) or Nm-2 Note: 1 Pa = 1 Nm-2

Breaking stress
This is the stress required to cause a material to break.

Tensile strain ()
Tensile strain = extension original length

= L / L
unit none (its a ratio like pi)

Question
A wire of natural length 2.5 m and diameter 0.5 mm is extended by 5 cm by a force of 40 N. Calculate: (a) the tensile strain (b) the tensile stress (c) the force required to break the wire if its breaking stress is 1.5 x 109 Pa.

The Young Modulus (E )

This is a measure of the stiffness of a material.
Young modulus = tensile stress tensile strain

E=/ unit pascal (same as stress)

Also:

tensile stress = F / A and tensile strain = L / L

Therefore:

E = (F / A) (L / L)

which is the same as:

E= F L A L

Examples of Young Modulus

Material diamond titanium carbide steel copper brass glass oak rubber band E / x 109 Pa 1200 345 210 130 100 80 12 0.02

Question 1
Calculate the tensile strain caused to a steel wire when put under 4.0 x 10 7 Pa of stress.

Question 2
A metal wire of original length 1.6m, cross sectional area 0.8 mm2 extends by 4mm when stretched by a tensile force of 200N. Calculate the wires (a) strain, (b) stress (c) Young Modulus.

Measurement of E
With equal control and test weights of 10N adjust the micrometer attached to the test wire so that the spirit level between the two wires is horizontal. Note the reading on the micrometer and also the length of the test, L wire using a metre ruler.
rigid support

long wires

spirit level hinge

micrometer

Use another micrometer to measure the diameter of the test wire at various places along the wire and calculate an average value, D.

control weight

test weights

Measurement of E
Calculate the average crosssection area of the wire, A from A = D2/4 Add an additional load, F of 5N to the test wire. Readjust the micrometer to bring the spirit level again and note the new reading
hinge rigid support

long wires

spirit level

micrometer

control weight

test weights

Measurement of E
Calculate:
(a) the extension, L caused by the addition of 5N to the test wire. (b) the tensile strain, produced in the wire using: = L/ L (c) the tensile stress, applied to the wire using: = F / A
hinge rigid support

long wires

spirit level

micrometer

Repeat with additional 5N loads.

control weight test weights

Measurement of E
Stop before the strain reaches 0.01 in order to prevent the wire exceeding its limit of proportionality (just before the elastic limit).
Draw a graph of stress against strain. This should be a straight line through the origin. Measure the gradient of this graph which will be equal to the Young Modulus, E of the test wire.
Stress, / Pa

Gradient =/=E 0

Strain,

Stress strain curves

(a) Metal wire (e.g. steel)
P = Limit of proportionality Up to this point the stress is proportional to the strain.
stress
P

strain

Stress strain curves

(a) Metal wire (e.g. steel)
E = Elastic limit
This is close to P Beyond this point the wire will become permanently stretched and suffer plastic deformation.
stress
E P

strain

Stress strain curves

(a) Metal wire (e.g. steel)
Y1 = Yield point This is where the wire weakens temporarily. Beyond Y2, a small increase in stress causes a large increase in strain as the wire undergoes plastic flow.
stress Y 1
E P

Y2

strain

Stress strain curves

(a) Metal wire (e.g. steel)
UTS = Ultimate tensile stress
Beyond the maximum stress, (UTS), the wire loses its strength, extends and becomes narrower at its weakest point where it fractures at B
stress Y 1
E P UTS breaking point B Y2

strain

Stress strain curves

(b) Brittle material (e.g. glass)
A brittle material does not undergo plastic deformation and will fracture at its elastic limit.
stress E P breaking point B

strain

Stress strain curves

(c) Ductile material (e.g. copper)
A ductile material can be drawn into a wire.
Both steel and copper are both ductile but copper is more ductile because it can withstand a greater strain than steel before breaking although it is not as strong or as stiff as steel.
stress
steel

copper

strain

Elastic strain energy

When a spring or wire is stretched potential energy is stored. This form of potential energy is called elastic strain energy. Consider a spring of original length L undergoing an extension L due to a tensile force F.

Elastic strain energy

The graph opposite shows how the force varies as the spring extends. The work done in extending the spring is given by: work = force x distance
force

extension

Elastic strain energy

= average tensile force x extension
force

= F L = area under the curve = energy stored in the spring

area = F L

and so:
0 extension L

elastic strain energy = F L

Stretching rubber
The work done in stretching rubber up to extension L is equal to the area under the loading curve. The unloading curve for rubber is different from its loading curve. When the rubber is unloaded only the energy equal to the area under the unloading curve is returned. The area between the two curves is the energy transferred to internal energy, due to which the rubber band becomes warmer.
0
force

energy lost to heating the rubber

loading

unloading

extension

Answers Complete:
tensile force 120 N 40 N 3 kN 2 MN extension 2m 15 cm 50 mm 6 m 150 J 12 J strain energy

Question
A spring of original length 20cm extends to 25cm when a weight of 4N is hung from it. Calculate: (a) the elastic strain energy stored in the spring, (b) the spring constant (c) the length of the spring when it is storing 0.5 J of energy.