Physics and Technological Progress

The laws of the physics of motion were developed by Galileo (1564 1642) and Newton (1642 1727)
These laws form the basis for:
Understanding the motion of objects and fluids on earth and in space Steam and gasoline engines, modern transportation Aerodynamics and the development of the airplane Rocketry and space travel

The laws of electricity and magnetism were assimilated by Maxwell (1831 1879)
These laws form the basis for: Electrical power generation and transmission Electronics and computer industry Electrical machinery Lasers and Lighting
In PHY 120 you will learn the laws of physics of motion, conservation of energy and momentum, thermodynamics and heat transfer and how to apply these laws
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Basic Approach to Understanding Physical Phenomena

Physicists establish hypotheses (theories to be tested) explaining observations
These hypotheses are tested against observations over an extended period of time (say, decades). They must be stated in such a way that they can be proven wrong. If the hypotheses prove to accurately predict observed phenomena over this extended period of time they are called theories and if the theories become widely accepted over a century or two they are called laws The observations that stand the test of time are called facts

If a theory is found incorrect by more accurate observations it is superseded by a new set of hypotheses
If the new hypotheses prove accurate over an extended period of time they are accepted as theories (may become laws) and the supporting observations are called facts. and the cycle continues
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Measurements Play a Key Role in Physics

The way in which theories are tested is by observations made in experiments designed by scientists to test the theories. These observations must be accurately measured to determine the degree to which the theories explain the experimental findings. Among the key measurements that physicists make are: 1.The time interval between two events. 2.The dimensions of an object 3.The mass of an object 4.The electric current through an electrical circuit. 5.The temperature of an object. 6.The luminous intensity of a light source.

Experimental Observations are Made by Measurements in the International (SI) Units

The Scientific Method and Experiments
Hypotheses must be supported by experiments made with precise measurements
This requires precise instrumentation and diagnostic equipment, as well as precisely defined standard measures for mass, length, time, electric current, temperature and luminosity

The International System (SI) Units are the accepted standard today, the units we will use in this course are:
Unit Length Standard Meter Basis for Standard Distance between two marks on a Pt/Ir bar kept at 0 degrees C

Mass
Time

Kilogram
Second

Mass of a standard cylinder of Pt/Ir

Time for 9,192,631,770 wave cycles of Cs atomic clock to occur

In this course we will be concerned primarily with the units of length (meters), 4 time (seconds) and mass (kilograms)

Aristotles Beliefs on the Motion of Objects Held Sway for 2000 Years
Aristotle (~350 B.C.) believed that there were two types of motion. 1. Natural Motion. Light things like smoke rise and heavy things like dropped boulders fall. 2. Violent Motion Motions that resulted from a push or a pull. Although Aristotles beliefs were ultimately proven wrong by Galileo and Newton and there were Greeks who lived at the same time as Aristotle that had different beliefs, Aristotle was so highly respected for his intellect that his beliefs were accepted without challenge. As a result of his belief in Natural Motion he thought that a heavy object would fall to earth faster than a lighter one. Aristotle and Ptolemy (~ 150 A.D.) also believed that the sun, planets and stars revolved around the earth (geocentric hypothesis) rather than the sun (heliocentric hypothesis)
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Aristotles (incorrect) hypotheses were thought correct for 2000 Years

Aristotles thoughts held the upper hand for 2000 years until Galileo and Kepler made more accurate observations in the 16th century A.D. 1. With the advent of the telescope Galileo was able to make more accurate observations and show that not all motion was geocentric a. He observed that Jupiter had moons which orbited around Jupiter, not around Earth 2. Galileo was also able to show that any two objects fell to earth at the same speed, independent of their weight, opposed to Aristotles hypotheses, and he performed accurate experiments on motion of objects using pendulums and water clocks. 3. Keplers observations on the motion of the planets superseded Ptolemys predictions Galileo and Keplers observations were the foundation of Newtons theories of motion and gravitation. With Newtons theories in hand there was a theoretical basis for the observations of Galileo and Kepler and the ideas of Aristotle and Ptolemy on motion were finally discarded.
With the advent of telescopes, experiments designed to test hypotheses and methods of measuring time durations Galileo was able to disprove Aristotles hypotheses
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Galileos Experiment Proved Aristotles Hypothesis Wrong

A key to the scientific method is making accurate measurements. A scientific assertion (hypothesis) can be disproven by a welldesigned experiment which allows for accurate observations. Aristotle (384 B.C. 322 B.C.) believed that an object falls at a speed proportional to its weight. He was so highly respected his assertion was held to be true for 2000 years. According to historians, in 1589 Galileo dropped two balls from the leaning tower of Pisa simultaneously and found they both impacted the ground at the same time, disproving Aristotles assertion. Why do you suppose Aristotle was wrong and so many people believed Aristotle for so long? Would the same result have occurred if Galileo had dropped a feather and a heavier rock at the same time in a second experiment? What causes the difference in the two experiments? Galileo was the first true physicist because he developed well-designed experiments and made precise measurements of his observations
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Units of Measure
We will be primarily using the SI (International) System of Units of measures in this course
The key units for studying motion and the familiar English unit equivalent are:
1 Meter = 39.37 inches = 3.281 feet 1 Kilogram = 2.205 pounds (mass equivalent)

The acceleration of gravity on earth in SI units

The mass of the earth creates a gravitational field that exerts a force directed toward the center of the earth g = 9.80 meters/second/second A body free-falling under the force of gravity will gain speed at the rate of 9.80 meters per second

Mass and Weight

Mass is a measure of the inertia (resistance to change in motion) of an object
It is related to the quantity of matter in an object Objects which are subjected to a (net) force will accelerate in inverse proportion to their mass

Weight and Mass are different

The weight of an object is the force with which it is pulled to the center of the earth (or any other astronomical body) by the force of gravity Weight = mass x acceleration of gravity Mass is an inherent quantity, weight varies with the gravitational field (e.g., objects weigh less on the moon than on earth, whereas mass is same)
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Converting from one system of units to another

Write down the units explicitly
For example 65 (miles/hour) (convert to feet/second)

Find the conversion factor from one system to the other

1 mile = 5280 feet, one hour = 3600 seconds

Set up as multiplicative factors so that only the new units appear in the result
65 miles/hour x 5280 feet/mile x 1 hour/3600 secs = 95.33 feet/sec
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Check Dimensions
For motion studies the fundamental units are
Mass, Length and Time The answer to a motion problem must have the correct dimensions (check numerator and denominator)

For example
Distance is always going to be in [L], (meters, feet, miles) Speed is always going to be in [L]/[T] (meters/sec, feet/sec, miles/hour) Acceleration is always going to be in [L]/[T]2 (meter/sec2, feet/sec2, miles/hour2)

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Common Physics Units (Motion)

Physical Parameter Displacement (x)
Time (t) Mass (m) Speed (v) Acceleration (a) Force (F)

Units [L]
[T] [M] [L]/ [T] [L]/ [T]2 [M] [L]/ [T]2

Example (SI Units) meter, (m)

second, (s) kilogram, (kg) meter per second, (m/s) meter/sec2, m/s2 newton, kg m/s2

Energy (E)

[M] [L]2 / [T]2

joule, kg m2/s2
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Check Dimensions: Example

Check for consistency of dimensions the eq.
v = at2 The units of v are [L]/[T], the units of a are [L]/[T]2 , and the units of time are [T] We ask the question do the dimensions on the right = the dimensions on the left? The dimension on the rhs of the equation are: [L]/[T]2 x [T]2 = [L], (length) The dimension of velocity are length/time, [L]/[T], so the two dont match and the equation is invalid

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Terminology of a right triangle

h = hypotenuse
h0 = length of side opposite the angle

90
ha = length of side adjacent to the angle

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Trigonometric Relationships
h
h0 = h sin

90
ha = h cos

h2 = h02 + ha2; sin = h0/h, cos = ha/h, tan = h0/ha = sin-1 (h0/h) = cos-1(ha/h) = tan-1(h0/ha)
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Additional Info on Trig/Geom.

h h
h0

90 + + = 180 + = 90 (angles are complementary) = 90 - h cos = h sin = ha h sin = h cos = h0 tan = h0/ha tan = ha/h0

ha

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Scalars and Vectors

A scalar quantity is one that can be described with a single number specifying the size or magnitude of a measurement
The mass of a rock is 30 kg The height of a tree is 20 m

A vector quantity is one where both the magnitude and the direction are essential characteristics
The acceleration of gravity is 9.80 m/sec2 directed toward the center of the earth A boat is headed due north at 1 meter/second (velocity)

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Vector Addition (two vectors @ 90)

N 125 m due N R B

Start A

90

275 m due E

Travel due east for 275 m (A) and travel due north for 125 m (B). What is the resultant vector?
R = A + B , R ={(275m)2 + (125m)2}1/2 = 302m is the magnitude of the vector (Pythagorean Theorem). We know that tan = 125m/275m =125/275= 0.454, so = tan-1(0.454) = 24.4, so that the vector points 24.4 north of due east.
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Any Vector can be resolved into components related to a co-ordinate system

Y

V VY

Vx

V = VX + VY = 1X VX + 1Y VY where 1X and 1Y are unit vectors along the X and Y axes respectively and VX and VY are the magnitudes of the respective vectors.
VX = V cos , VY = V sin , where V is the magnitude of the vector. This gives us a method of adding together many vectors, by resolving them into the X and Y components and simply adding the magnitudes of the X and Y components and 19 aligning them along the X-axis and Y-axis respectively

Add multiple vectors together by adding their x and y components (Ref. X-Y Origin)
Y Resultant Vector Magnitude = {(V1x+ V2x)2 + (V1Y+ V2Y)2}1/2, Resultant Vector Direction = tan-1{(V1Y+ V2Y)/(V1X+ V2X)}

V2Y+ V1Y V2Y V1Y

V1+ V2

V2
V2X

V1 X
V1X
V1X + V2X
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Add multiple vectors together by adding their x and y components (Head to Tail)
Y Resultant Vector Magnitude = {(V1x+ V2x)2 + (V1Y+ V2Y)2}1/2, Resultant Vector Direction = tan-1{(V1Y+ V2Y)/(V1X+ V2X)}

V2Y+ V1Y

V1+ V2
V2Y

V2
V1 X
V2X

V1Y

V1X
V1X + V2X
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Positive Vector and its Negative

VY= V sin -VX= -V cos

V
VX= V cos

-V

- VY= - V sin

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Problem 1-9
Determine the number of milliliters in one ounce given: 1 gallon = 128 ounce; 1 gallon = 3.785 x 10-3 m3 and 1mL = 10-6 m3
From the first equation: 1 ounce = 1 gallon/128; From the second equation: 1 gallon = 3.785 x 10-3 m3 So, 1 ounce = 3.785 x 10-3 m3 /128 = 2.96 x 10-5m3 In order to get this into mL, from the third equation we have 1 mL = 10-6 m3 or 1m3 = 106 mL So, 1 ounce = 2.96 x 10-5m3 = 2.96 x 10-5 m3 x 106 mL/m3 = 2.96 x 101 mL = 29.6 mL

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Problem 1-16
hb = height of building

ha = height of antenna

What is height of Antenna on Building?

ha

1 = 35.0 = line of sight to top of building 2 = 38.0 = line of sight to top of antenna

hb

Line of Sight

85.0 meters
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Problem 1-16
1 = 35.0 2 = 38.0
Tan (1) = hb/85, hb = 85 tan (35.0)
Tan (2) =(ha + hb)/85,

What is height of Antenna on Building?

ha

ha + hb = 85 tan (38.0)

ha= (ha + hb) hb = 85 {tan (38.0) tan (35.0)} = 85.0(0.781 0.700) ha = 6.89 meters

hb

Line of Sight

85.0 meters
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Problem 1-23(a)
Two forces on a crate One force is 445 N due west The other is 325 N due north What is resultant R?

Rmagnitude = (3252 + 4452)1/2 = 551 N

tan = (325/445) = 0.730 = tan-1 (325/445) = tan-1 (0.730) = 36.1 north of due west

R 325 A = 445 N
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B = 325 N

Problem 1-23 (b)

R1mag = (3252 + 4452)1/2 = 551 N What if B is reversed? With B pointing due north 1 = tan-1 (325/445) = tan-1 (0.730) = 36.1 north of due west

If B is reversed, it points due south

2= 36.1 degrees south of due west Direction of resultant vector R2 is changed, but the magnitude (551N) is the same.

R1 325 1 A = 445 N due west R2 2

B = 325 N due north

325

-B = 325 N due south

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Problem 1 - 36
Y N Player #1 The direction of AY is due south The direction of AX is due east The magnitude of A is 8.6 meters, what are the magnitudes of AX and AY ?
30.0

so the magnitude of AX = A sin (30) = 8.6 x 0.5 = 4.3 meters. Its direction is due east and the magnitude of AY= A cos (30) = 8.6 x 0.866 = 7.4 meters. Its direction is due south.

AY

90

Player #2 AX

Soccer Net

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Problem 1 47 (Prev. Edition) N

A football player runs 5.0 m due N, then 15.0 m due E, and then 18.0 m 35 south of due east, what is the resultant vector (magnitude and direction)?

15.0 m
B 35.0

5.0 m A

18.0 m R=A+B+C

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Problem 1 47 (components of vector A)

N
To solve the problem we will find the x and y components of the vectors A, B and C individually. We will then add the xcomponents together for each vector to find the x-component of the resultant vector R and the y-components of each vector to find the y-component of the resultant vector R. That is, Rx = Ax + Bx + Cx, = tan-1 (Ry/ Rx) Ry = Ay + By + Cy , R = (Rx2 + Ry2)1/2 tan = Ry/ Rx

+Y

Starting with the vector A Football player runs 5.0 m in a direction due N The components of A are Ax and Ay

5.0 m

The value of Ax = 0 (there is no x component because the vector is pointing North (+y) direction) The value of Ay = +5.0 m +X

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Problem 1 - 47 (Components of Vector B)

N
Continuing with the vector B. Football player runs 15.0 m in a direction due E. The vector B then has a component in the +x direction, but none in the +y direction. Bx = + 15.0 m. and By = 0 +Y

15.0 m
B

+X

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Problem 1 47 (Components of Vector C)

N
Continuing with the vector C. Player runs 18.0 m in a direction 35 south of due east Cx = + 18.0 m cos (35) Cy = - 18.0 m sin (35) Cx = + 14.7 m, Cy = - 10.3 m

Cx = + 18.0 m cos (35) 35.0 Cy = - 18.0 m sin (35)

18.0 m

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Problem 1 47 (Final)
Rx = Ax + Bx + Cx = 0 + 15.0m + 14.7m = + 29.7m Ry = Ay + By + Cy = 5.0m + 0 + (-10.3m) = - 5.3 m ,
tan = Ry/ Rx = - 5.3m/29.7m = - 0.178 = tan-1 (Ry/ Rx) = tan -1 (-0.178) = - 10.1 R = (Rx2 + Ry2)1/2 = = {(29.7 m)2 + (-5.3m)2}1/2= 30.2 m So the vector R is pointed 10.1 south of due east and has a magnitude of 30.2 m

18.0 m cos (35.0) = (18.0) (.819) = 14.7 m

18.0 m sin (-35.0) = (18.0)(-.573) = -10.3 m 14.7 m 15.0 m
35.0

5.0 m 29.7 m

18.0 m

-10.3 m

R=A+B+C tan () =- 5.3/29.7 =- 0.178 = tan-1(-0.178) = -10.1 29.7 m

2}1/2 R = {(29.7 m)2 + (-5.3m)33

- 5.3 m

= 30.2 m