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Distributed resources (DR) and distributed generation (DG): DG can be defined as a subset of DR [T. Ackermann, G. Andersson, and L. Sder, Distributed generation: A definition. Electric Power Systems Research, vol. 57, issue 3, pp. 195 -204, April 2001] DR are sources of electric power that are not directly connected to a bulk power transmission system. DR includes both generators and energy storage technologies [T. Ackermann, G. Andersson, and L. Sder, Distributed generation: A definition. Electric Power Systems Research, vol. 57, issue 3, pp. 195-204, April 2001] DG involves the technology of using small-scale power generation technologies located in close proximity to the load being served [J. Hall, The new distributed generation, Telephony Online, Oct. 1, 2001 http://telephonyonline.com/mag/telecom_new_distributed_generation/ ] Microgrids are electric networks utilizing DR to achieve independent control from a large widespread power grid Prevailing technologies: Batteries Flywheels Ultracapacitors
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Alexis Kwasinski, 2012
Energy Storage
Uses of energy storage devices in DG: Power buffer for slow, bad load followers, DG technologies. Energy supply for stochastic generation profiles. Power vs. Energy
dE P dt
Power delivery profile: short, shallow and often energy exchanges. Flywheels Ultracapacitors
Energy delivery profile: long, deep and infrequent energy exchanges. Batteries For the same energy variation, power is higher in short exchanges.
Battery technologies
Batteries stores energy chemically. Main technologies: Lead Acid Nickel-Cadmium Nickel-Metal Hydride Li-ion
Battery technologies
Lead-acid batteries
Lead-acid batteries are the most convenient choice based on cost. The technology that most of the users love to hate. Lead-acid batteries are worse than other technologies based on all the other characteristics. Disposal is another important issue. In particular, lead-acid batteries are not suitable for load-following power buffer applications because their life is significantly shortened when they are discharged very rapidly or with frequent deep cycles.
http://polarpowerinc.com/info/operation20/operation25.htm
Lead-acid batteries
Positive electrode: Lead dioxide (PbO2) Negative electrode: Lead (Pb)
H2O
PbO2 H 2O Pb
H2O
H 2O H 2O
Lead-acid batteries
Chemical reaction (discharge)
Pb2+
SO4
PbSO4
2-
2e-
H2O
H2O
H2O H2O H2O
Lead-acid batteries
Chemical reaction (discharge) Negative electrode
Pb Pb2+ + 2e-
Pb2+ + SO42-
PbSO4
4H+ + 2SO42-
2H2SO4
2PbSO4 + 2H2O
The nominal voltage produced by this reaction is about 2 V/cell. Cells are usually connected in series to achieve higher voltages, usually 6V, 12 V, 24 V and 48V.
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Alexis Kwasinski, 2012
Lead-acid batteries
As the battery discharges, sulfuric acid concentration decreases. At the same time, lead sulfate is deposited on the electrode plates.
Charging follows the inverse process, but a small portion of the lead sulfate remains on the electrode plates.
Every cycle, some more lead sulfate deposits build up on the electrode plates, reducing the reaction area and, hence, negatively affecting the battery performance. Electrode plates sulfatation is one of the primary effects that affects battery life. To avoid accelerating the sulfatation process, batteries need to be fully charged after every discharge and they must be kept charged at a float voltage higher than the nominal voltage. For lead acid batteries and depending their technology the float voltage is between 2.08 V/Cell and 2.27 V/cell. For the same reasons, lead-acid batteries should not be discharged below 1.75 V/cell
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Alexis Kwasinski, 2012
A New Battery Model for use with Battery Energy Storage Systems and Electric Vehicles Power Systems H.L. Chan, D. Sutanto
All models imply one issue when connecting batteries of different capacity in parallel: since the internal resistances depend on the capacity, the battery with the lower capacity may act as a load for the battery with the higher capacity.
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Alexis Kwasinski, 2012
http://www.mhpower.com.au/images/tecfig23.gif SONNENSCHEIN
Internal Resistance and Deterioration of VRLA Battery Analysis of Internal Resistance obtained by Direct Current Measurement and its application to VlRLA Battery Monitoring Technique Isamu Kurisawa and Masashi Iwata
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http://polarpowerinc.com/info/operation20/operation25.htm
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Some manufacturers of battery chargers implement algorithms that increase the float voltage at lower temperatures and increase the float voltage at higher temperatures.
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Alexis Kwasinski, 2012
http://polarpowerinc.com/info/operation20/operation25.htm
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As the state of charge increases, the internal resistance tends to decrease. Hence, the current increases leading to further increase of the state of charge accompanied by an increase in temperature. Both effects contribute to further decreasing the internal resistances, which further increases the current and the temperature.. This positive feedback process is called thermal runaway.
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VD I D TD VC VC I C TC
Hence, the energy efficiency equals the product of the voltage efficiency and the Coulomb efficiency. Since lead acid batteries are usually charged at the float voltage of about 2.25 V/cell and the discharge voltage is about 2 V/cell, the voltage efficiency is about 0.88. In average the coulomb efficiency is about 0.92. Hence, the energy efficiency is around 0.80
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Alexis Kwasinski, 2012