Active filters

filters

Filter
passes one band of frequencies while rejecting another can separate desired signals from undesired signals block interfering signals enhance speech and video alter signals in other ways

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Passive Filters

built with resistors, capacitors, and inductors generally used above 1MHz have no power gain relatively difficult to tune
built with resistors, capacitors, and op-amps useful below 1MHz have power gain relatively easy to tune

Active Filters

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Ideal Responses
Frequency Response of a Filter graph of its voltage gain versus frequency Low-Pass Filter

brick wall response passes all frequencies from zero to the cut-off frequency and blocks all frequencies above the cut-off frequency zero phase shift for all frequencies in the passband

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Low-Pass Filter Passband frequencies between zero and the cut-off frequency (zero attenuation or signal loss) Stopband frequencies above the cut-off frequency (infinite attenuation) transition the roll-off region between the passband and the stopband (vertical)

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High-Pass Filter

blocks all frequencies from zero up to the cut-off frequency and passes all frequencies above the cut-off frequency

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Bandpass Filter blocks all frequencies from zero up to the lower cut-off frequency, then it passes all the frequencies between the lower and upper cut-off frequencies and finally blocks all frequencies above the upper cut-off frequency useful when you want to tune in a radio or television signal useful in telephone communications equipment for separating the different phone conversations that are being simultaneously transmitted over the same communication path

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Bandpass Filter

Bandwidth (BW) the difference between the upper and lower 3-dB cut-off frequencies BW = f2 f1 Center Frequency (fo) geometric average of the two cut-off frequencies fo = f1f2 Quality Factor (Q) defined as the center frequency divided by the bandwidth Q = fo/ BW Q > 10 : fo (f1 + f2) / 2 Q < 1 : wideband filter Q > 1 : narrowband filter

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Bandstop Filter passes all frequencies from zero up to the lower cut-off frequency, then it blocks all the frequencies between the lower and upper cut-off frequencies, finally it passes all frequencies above the upper cut-off frequency also called notch filter because it notches out or removes all frequencies in the stopband

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All-Pass Filter has a passband and no stopband passes all frequencies between zero and infinite frequency useful when we want to produce a certain amount of phase shift for the signal being filtered without changing its amplitude

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Approximate Responses

Attenuation refers to a loss of signal ; output voltage at any frequency divided by the output in the midband Attenuation = vout / vout(mid) Decibel Attenuation = -20 log attenuation passband no longer has zero attenuation (0 Ap) stopband no longer has infinite attenuation (As infinity) transition region no longer vertical (nonvertical roll-off)

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Order of Passive Filter

equals

the number of inductors and capacitors in the filter the higher the order the more complicated the filter is

Order of an Active Filter

depends on the number of RC circuits (called poles) it contains n # capacitors

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Butterworth Approximation
maximally flat approximation because the passband attenuation is zero through most of the passband and decreases gradually to Ap at the edge of the passband Roll-off at a rate of approximately 20ndB per decade major advantage: flatness of the passband response major disadvantage: relatively slow roll-off rate

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Butterworth Low Pass Response

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Chebyshev Approximation

it rolls-off faster in the transition region ripples appear in the passband of the frequency response # Ripples = n/2 equal-ripple approximation ( ripple depth bet 0.1 and 3dB)

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Inverse Chebyshev Approximation

flat passband response as well as a fast roll-off flat passnad response and a rippled stopband response Monotonic stopband has no ripples

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Elliptic Approximation
rippled passband and a rippled stopband Cauer filter optimizes the transition region at the expense of the passband and stopband

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Bessel Approximation
flat passband and a monotonic stopband roll-off in the transition region is much less optimized to produce a linear phase shift with frequency

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Filter Approximations

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Passive Filters
by keeping the resonant frequency but varying the Q, we can get ripples to appear in the passband of higher-order filters Second-order LC filter

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Examples:

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Examples:

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Damping Factor
another way of explaining the peaking action at resonance = 1/Q the higher the damping factor, the smaller the peak

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Higher-Order LC Filters

built by cascading second-order stages

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First-Order Stages
first-order or 1-pole active-filter stages have only one capacitor they can produce only a low-pass or a high-pass response

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Low-Pass Stage

Non-inverting unity gain

Non-inverting with voltage gain

Inverting with voltage gain

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High-Pass Stage

Non-inverting Unity Gain

Non-inverting with Voltage Gain

Inverting with Voltage Gain

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VCVS Unity-Gain Second-Order Low-Pass Filters 2-pole stage; most common because they are easy to build and analyze higher-order filters are usually made by cascading second-order stages has a resonant frequency and a Q to determine how much peaking occurs

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Pole Frequency a special frequency used in the design of active filters Q=0.707 & Kc=1 (Butterworth response) Q=0.577 & Kc=0.786 (Bessel Response) Cut-off frequency: always the frequency at which the attenuation is 3dB fc = Kcfp

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When Q > 0.707 (Peaked Response)

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VCVS High-Pass Filters

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Bandpass Filters
has a center frequency and a bandwidth Q < 1: wideband response ; cascading a lowpass stage with a high-pass stage Q > 1 : narrowband response

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Wideband Filters

when Q > 1, the cut-off frequencies are much closer , because of this, the sum of the passband attenuation is greater than 3dB at the cut-off frequencies

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Narrowband Filters

Multiple Feedback Bandpass Stage

Tunable Center Frequency with Constant Bandwidth

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Bandstop Filters