ME 3250

ME 3250
Fluid Dynamics I
Spring 2014
Prof. Mike Renfro
AUST 110
TuTh 2:00-3:15 PM
Handouts
Course Policy
Syllabus
Academic Conduct fill out and return
News article Mars Orbiter
Course Information (1)
Text: Munson, B.R., Rothmayer, A.P., Okiishi,
T.H., and Huebsch, W.W., Fundamentals of
Fluid Mechanics, 7
th
edition, Wiley (2013).
Office: UTEB 472
Phone: 486-2239
E-mail: renfro@engr.uconn.edu
Office Hours: M 10-11, Tu 10-11, Th 3:30-
4:30 (or by appointment)
Course Information (2)
HuskyCT Site
Updated homework assignments, announcements
Link to publisher website videos, sample quizzes
Lecture notes
Old test solutions
Grades
Pre-req: ME 2233 (Thermo I) and its pre-reqs
(calculus, physics, etc.)
Pre-req quiz (5%) on Tu 1/28, 30 minutes in class

Grade Distribution (1)
Homework (10%)
2-3 problems assigned each lecture due following
Thursday
2-3 problems graded per set all must be turned in
for full credit
No late homework accepted due at start of class
Format/units (see Mars Lander handout)
i>clicker 2 questions (15%)
3-4 clicker questions each class will be used to:
Review material from previous lecture
Test new material presented during lecture
See if concepts need additional attention
Grading for clicker questions is credit for
answering + credit for answering correctly
You may usually talk through your answers with
other students unless I specifically say otherwise
Attendance

Exams (35%)
Exam 1 Tu March 4
Exam 2 Tu April 22
1 crib sheet can be brought to each exam
Final Exam (25%)
Tu May 6, 1-3pm (tentative)
Comprehensive
2 crib sheets can be brought to exam

FLUENT Projects (10%)
One or two projects using FLUENT software
2
nd
floor ME computer lab in E-II
Project includes brief 1 page report and data
analysis

Final grades are relative to class performance
Academic Honesty
Anything you turn in for a grade must be
entirely your own work
Cheating includes obvious copying of exams
or homework but also listing the books or a
friends answer or working backwards from this
answer
As long as you turn in your own work, I
encourage working with others on homework
Intro to Fluid Dynamics (1)
What is a fluid? (Chap. 1)
When a small force is applied to a solid, the solid
strains (displacement) until the stresses in the
solid balance the force at equilibrium a solid is at
rest and if the force is removed the solid recovers
stress
F
strain
When a force is applied to a fluid (liquid or gas),
the stresses lead to continuous straining (a rate of
strain) via fluid motion (velocity) at equilibrium
a fluid flows
Fluids flow even for infinitesimally small stresses

Fluid Statics = A study of forces caused by
stationary fluids

Fluid Dynamics = A study of fluid (gas or
liquid) motion due to applied forces
Fluid Mechanics = A study of forces caused by
fluid motion
These are often used synonymously
Applications of Fluid Mechanics (1)
Study the behavior of fluids at rest
Fluid statics analysis (Chap. 2)
Study the forces that fluids impart on systems
Study the global behavior of fluid in a system
Integral (control volume) analysis (Chap. 5)
Study the local behavior of fluid flow
Differential analysis (Chap. 6)
Properties of Fluids (1)
Pressure

Density

Ideal gas

Most liquids
(
= =
3 3
1
ft
lbm
m
kg
v V
m
| | ] [ ) (
2 2
atm psi
in
lbf
Pa or
m
N
A
F
p
(
=
RT
p
RT p = =
const =
Properties of Fluids (2)
Specific weight

Specific gravity

(
=
3 3
ft
lbf
m
N
g
| | =
water
SG
Viscosity (1)
You should be familiar with concepts of
density, temperature, pressure, and velocity
Viscosity is one of the most important
properties (with density) that make fluids
behave differently
Viscosity Movie
Viscosity of the oil is 10
4
larger than water
same density
Viscosity (2)
What is viscosity?
All fluids strain when a stress is applied
The viscosity, , is the stress, t, required to
achieve a given rate of strain,
(we will discuss fluid strain and stress
more in Chap. 6)
dy
du
t
t
= =

o
o|
o 0
lim
Viscosity (3) Newtonian Fluids

A velocity gradient is a rate
of shearing strain
As the stress increases (by
pulling the upper plate
faster), the shearing strain
increases (the fluid flows
with a steeper velocity
gradient)
Newtonian fluids have a
linear relationship between t
and strain rate (du/dy)
This linear coefficient is the
viscosity,

dy
du
t =

Viscosity (4) Non-Newtonian
Fluids
Non-Newtonian fluids
do not have a linear
relationship between
stress and strain rate
Non-Newtonian Movie
Corn starch forms a
shear thickening fluid
viscosity is larger for
high shearing strain
In this course we will
deal with mostly
Newtonian fluids
Viscosity (5) - Units
Rate of shearing strain

Stress is a force per unit area

Viscosity
Also called dynamic viscosity

Kinematic viscosity
(other units exist for viscosity be careful with
unit conversions)
] [
1
= = s
dy
du
=
2 2
in
lbf
or
m
N
t
(

=
2 2
in
s lbf
or
m
s N
=
s
ft
or
s
m
2 2
v
Viscosity (6) Temperature Effects
Viscosity strongly
depends on T
For liquids viscosity
decreases with T (effects
of molecular interactions
decrease)
For gases viscosity
increases with T (effects
of molecular collisions
increase)
Viscosity (7) Walls and No-slip
At walls, viscosity causes the fluid to stick to
the wall the wall and fluid have the same
velocity (otherwise there would be infinite
strain and stress)
This is called the No-slip condition (movie)

30 minutes

Pre-req Quiz
Additional Fluid Properties (1)
Bulk modulus
If p is increased, how much does
decrease (as a percentage)?

since

E
v
is the Bulk Modulus with [N/m
2
]
Change in pressure required for a given
percentage change in density or volume
d
dp
d
dp
E
v
=

=
/
= m
Bulk Modulus
For ideal gases undergoing an isothermal
process

Thus, bulk modulus for air is of the order 10
5

N/m
2

For liquid water E
v
=2x10
9
N/m
2

C RT p = =
Cd dp =
p C
d
Cd
E
v
= = =

Liquid Surfaces
Gases characterized by weak intermolecular forces
(flying through space unaffected by neighbors)
Liquids characterized by significant intermolecular
forces
In liquid neighboring molecules pull
equally in all directions
At surface, net force is down
(balanced by pressure)
Surface also stretches molecules
(surface tension)
Surface Tension (1)
Droplet Formation
Liquids in free space form spherical drops due to
surface tension
Surface tension is property of fluid, o [N/m] =
force per unit length of surface
Surface Tension (2)
Pressure in a drop
Balance of forces on cross
section of drop

( )
2
2 R p A p p R L
amb drop
t t o o A = = =
R
p
o 2
= A

Surface Tension (3)
Bending of surface around an object provides
tension that must be broken
Surface acts like membrane
Movie
Surface Tension (4)
At solid surface, attractive force between the
solid and liquid molecules can be large enough
to overcome surface tension the solid surface
wets (fig A)
Or, too weak and the surface does not wet (fig
c)
Surface Wetting
Wetting pulls liquid up small capillary tubes
Angle of liquid surface causes net upward
force to balance weight of liquid

u o t t cos 2
2
R h R g mg = = =
u o
R
h
cos 2
=

Vapor Pressure
Fast molecules from liquid
with sufficient velocity to
escape surface evaporate
Slow molecules from gas
are captured by surface forces
and condense
Equilibrium occurs when
sufficient vapor exists
(evaporation=condensation)
This equilibrium pressure is
Vapor pressure, p
v

Vapor Pressure
Vapor pressure, p
v
[N/m
2
] or [atm] is a
property of a liquid and is strongly T
dependent
At boiling T, vapor pressure = 1 atm

Fluid Statics
If fluid has no velocity (left), or is moving
together as a system (right) then there is no
straining motion
Each fluid element moves rigidly with its
neighbor
No shear force on fluid
0 0 = = = t t
dy
du
and
dy
du
Balance of Forces (1)
If there is no shear force, only forces on fluid
element are pressure and weight
Can balance forces on any control volume
(fluid element) using Newtons Second Law
(F=ma)
Wedge chosen
as an example
Balance of Forces (2)
Consider case where acceleration is zero

Regardless of angle, pressure acts equally in all directions,
even with acceleration (see further analysis on text p. 39)
However, pressure can vary from point to point
s x p z x p
ma F
s y
y y
o uo o o sin 0
0
=
= =
z s o u o = sin
s y
s y
p p
z x p z x p
=
= o o o o 0
Variation of pressure in a fluid (1)
Now consider a finite sized
cubic fluid element with
pressure variations
y
y
y y
y
a
y
p
z y x a z y x
y
p
z y x a ma
z x
y
y
p
p z x
y
y
p
p F
o o o o o o
o o o
o o
o
o o
o
=
c
c

=
c
c
= =
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
=
2 2
x
a
x
p
=
c
c

In z-direction, gravity also acts
on fluid element
( )
( ) g a
z
p
z y x g a z y x
z
p
ma mg y x
z
z
p
p y x
z
z
p
p F
z
z
z
+ =
c
c

+ =
c
c
=
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
=
o o o o o o
o o
o
o o
o
2 2

( ) g a
z
p
a
y
p
a
x
p
z y x
+ =
c
c
=
c
c
=
c
c
, ,
k
z
p
j
y
p
i
x
p
p

c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
= V
k a j a i a a
z y x

+ + =
g a p = V
Fluids at Rest (1)
If a=0

For an
incompressible fluid
(density=constant)

= =
c
c
=
c
c
=
c
c
= V
g
z
p
y
p
x
p
g p
0
( )
h p
z z g p p
gdz dp
B A B A
= A
=
=
} }

Fluids at Rest (2)
For a compressible fluid
(e.g., ideal gas)

If T, R, and g are
constant with height then

} }
=
= =
=
dz
RT
g
p
dp
RT
pg
g
dz
dp
RT
p
) 0 (
exp
ln
p C where
RT
gz
C p
C
RT
gz
p
=
(
=
+
=
Standard Atmosphere
Considerable variations in atmospheric
properties with height
Pressure Measurements
Barometers measure
atmospheric pressure
through balance of
pressure and liquid
mercury weight
vap atm
p h p + =
0 10 5 . 1 000023 . 0
6
,
~ = =

atm psi p
Hg vap
Hg mm atm 760 1 =
Manometers (1)
Manometers use fluid
statics to measure
relative pressure
between two points
Balance of forces

If fluid A is a gas, then
pressure rise at h
1
is
negligible (
A
<<
2
)
2 2 3 2 1
h p p p h p
atm A A
+ = = = +
2 2
h p p
atm A
+ ~

Gage Pressure
Manometers do not determine absolute
pressure (since p
atm
is not measured)
Gage pressure is pressure relative to
atmospheric
Gage pressure can be negative for absolute
pressures below atmospheric

Usually, if no information is given on a
pressure it is assumed to be a gage pressure

g atm A
p p p h = =
Manometers (2)
Inclined manometers increase the sensitivity of
the measurement
u sin
2 2 2 1
l p p =

Bourdon Pressure Gages
Metal tube straightens as pressure increases moving
needle
Set to zero for atmospheric pressure Gage pressure
measurement
Most common pressure sensor
Forces on Surfaces (1)
For fluids in motion both pressure and shear
forces act on surfaces
For static fluids (including systems in motion
as a whole) there is no shear force

Forces on Surfaces (2)
Net force is for isobaric
surfaces (normal to gravity, horizontal)
Atmospheric pressure cancels since acting on
both sides of surface (usually)
Gage pressure

ghA pA F = =
Inclined Surfaces (1)
For an inclined surface, the pressure varies
across the surface

Defining

pdA F = o
} }
= = hdA pdA F
R

u sin y h =
} }
= = ydA dA y F
R
u u sin sin
Area Centroid
Integral is areas Centroid

Thus, inclined surfaces can be treated as flat if
area centroid location is known
The resulting force acts through another point,
y
R
A y ydA
c
=
}
A h Ay F
c c R
u = = sin
Inclined Surfaces (2)
For moment of
resulting force
to act like actual
distributed force

} }
= = dA y pydA y F
R R
u sin
2
u sin
c R
Ay F =
A y
I
A y
dA y
y
c
x
c
R
= =
}
2
Tabulated Moments of Inertia
See p. 59-60
for
transformations
to use tabulated
Ixy data
Example: Plane surface (wall)
Centroid is located at h/2
Thus, force is

Force acts
through 2/3 point
2 / hA F
R
=
h
h
h hb h
bdy y
A y
dA y
y
h
c
R
3
2
3
2
) )( 2 / (
3
2
0
2
2
= = = =
}
}

Example: Curved surface
Direct integration difficult for arbitrary surface
Free body diagram used to compute resultant
force
F1 is gh acting through center of surface AB
F2 acts through 2/3 point of surface AC

Buoyancy (1) .
Submerged surfaces are subject to
an upward force due to higher
pressure at greater depth
Force balance on only fluid in
ABCD

Buoyancy force only depends on
volume (Movie)
AB
A h F
1 1
=
CD
A h F
2 2
=
( ) | |
=
+ =
+ =

B
obj B
fluid B
F
A h h A h F A h
W F F F
1 2 1 2
1 2
Buoyancy (2)
Since buoyancy only depends on volume and
not density of the object, its force acts through
the centroid of the object (see p. 70 for formal
proof)
However, the weight of the object acts through
the center of mass which is different from the
centroid if the object is not homogeneous
Stability
If center of mass is below centroid, object will be stable
If center of mass is above centroid, object will be unstable

Rigid body rotation (1)
Last time we derived for accelerating systems

For a rotating system
g a p = V
g a z
z
p p
r
r
r
p
p u
u
=
c
c
c
c
c
c
= V
r r a
2
= =
2
= r
r
p
=
c
c
g
z
p
=
c
c
dz dr r dp = =
2
Rigid body rotation (2)
Along an isobar dp=0
dz dr r dp = =
2
g
r
dr
dz
2
=
=
c
g
r
z + =
2
2 2
=

Flow Visualization (1)
Dye injection
in liquid can
be used to
see flow
dye follows
the flow
Photographs
show streaks
representing
path of fluid
particles
Flow Visualization (2)
Streaklines, Pathlines, and Streamlines
Streaklines = instantaneous location of fluid
particles that once passed through a specified point
inject dye continuously at fixed points and take snapshot
at later time
Pathlines = path that particles follow
inject dye briefly at fixed points and take time-lapsed
photo for a period of time
Movie differences in pathlines and streaklines
Streamlines
Streamlines = lines in the flow that are locally
tangent to the velocity of the fluid
Streamline (2)
Streamlines
determined by
measuring
instantaneous
velocity and
integrating to
find tangent lines
Harder to
measure than
streaklines
Most useful to
mathematically
describe flow
Streamlines (3)
For steady flows pathlines, streaklines, and
streamlines are identical - Movie

Inviscid Flow (1)
In real fluids, if there is fluid motion with non-
uniform velocity then there will be strain and
shear forces
However, it is often true that these shear forces
are much smaller than forces due to pressure
gradients or gravity
In these cases the fluid is assumed to be
inviscid (=0)
Inviscid Flow (2)
Inviscid flows are not strongly affected by drag at
surfaces and can flow around sharp corners
Viscid flows are slowed by drag at the surface much
more strongly
Inviscid Flow (3)
Changes in overall
velocity or geometry
of a problem can
change the
importance of
viscous forces
Some regions of a
flow may be inviscid
while others show
strong viscous
effects
Streamline Analysis
Fluid particles
subject to

Since streamline is
tangent to V
a m F =
n s V V 0 + =
dt
ds
s
V
dt
dn
n
V
s a n a
dt
V d
a
s n
c
c
+
c
c
=
+ = =
9
=
2
V
a
n
V
s
V
a
s
c
c
=
F=ma Along Streamline (1)

Note: we are applying F=ma to a fluid particle the fluid particle follows a
pathline but we are using derivatives along the streamline to represent the
fluid acceleration the flow must be steady

Force due to gravity along streamline is
c
c
= =
o o o
s
V
V a m F
s s
= = uo u o o sin sin
,
g mg F
g
s
Force due to pressure:
2
s
s
p
p p p
s
o
o
c
c
+ = +
2
s
s
p
p p p
s
o
o
c
c
=
2
s
s
p
p
s
o
o
c
c
=
c
c
= =
+ =
o o o o
o o o o o o o
s
p
y n p
y n p p y n p p F
s
s s p s
2
) ( ) (
,
Net Force = ma

Note: we have not included shear forces we are assuming the flow is
inviscid (pressure forces are more important than viscous forces)

In static fluids the pressure gradient was balanced by gravity
In moving fluids, any imbalance in pressure and gravity (LHS) causes fluid
particle acceleration (RHS)
c
c
=
c
c
=
o o o u o
s
V
V
s
p
g F sin
s
V
V
s
p
g
c
c
=
c
c
u sin

Along streamline

Since along a streamline dn=0, for any derivative
partial and ordinary derivates in s are the same
(Note: analysis is limited to along a streamline)

Finally,
s
V
V
s
p
g
c
c
=
c
c
u sin
s
z
c
c
= u sin
0 =
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
s
z
g
s
V
V
s
p

ds
s
p
dn
n
p
ds
s
p
dp
c
c
=
c
c
+
c
c
=
s
V
s
V
V
c
c
=
c
c
2
2

Integrating along a streamline

If we assume fluid is incompressible (negligible density change)
0
2
2
= + +
ds
dz
g
ds
dV
ds
dp
0
2
1
2
= + + gdz dV
dp
.
2
1
2
Const gdz dV
dp
= + +
} } }

.
2
1
2
Const gz V
dp
= + +
}

.
2
1
2
Const gz V p = + +
Bernoulli Equation

Can only be applied to
Steady flow
Inviscid flow
Incompressible flow
Flow along a streamline
.
2
1
2
Const gz V p = + +

Stagnation Flow
Stagnation point occurs
where flow is diverted around
two sides of an object
Dividing streamline includes
stagnation point
Movie
Flow decelerates toward
stagnation point (higher
pressure)

Pressure Along Dividing Streamline

F=ma Normal to Streamline (1)

Force due to gravity across streamline is

Force due to pressure
= = uo u o o cos cos
,
g mg F
g
n
9
= =
o o o
2
V
a m F
n n
c
c
= =
+ =
o o o o
o o o o o o o
n
p
y s p
y s p p y s p p F
n
n n p n
2
) ( ) (
,
2
n
n
p
p
n
o
o
c
c
=

Across streamline

Since normal to streamline ds=0, for any derivative
partial and ordinary derivates in n are the same
(Note: analysis is limited to normal to a streamline)

n
z
c
c
= u cos
dn
n
p
dn
n
p
ds
s
p
dp
c
c
=
c
c
+
c
c
=
9
=
c
c

2
cos
V
n
p
g u
0
2
=
c
c
+
9
+
c
c
n
z
g
V
n
p

0
2
= +
9
+ gdz dn
V
dp

Integrating normal to streamline

If we assume fluid is incompressible
.
2
Const gz dn
V
p = +
9
+
}

0
2
= +
9
+ gdz dn
V
dp
.
2
Const gdz dn
V dp
= +
9
+
} } }

Steady, Inviscid, Incompressible Flow
Along streamline:

Across streamline:

Pressure changes along streamline accelerates fluid
particles
Pressure changes normal to streamline turns fluid
particles (changes streamline direction)
.
2
Const gz dn
V
p = +
9
+
}

.
2
1
2
Const gz V p = + +

Movie
Bernoulli Equation
Meaning of Terms
Along the streamline:

Static pressure dynamic pressure hydrostatic pressure total pressure
Each term has units of pressure (N/m
2
)

Static pressure = actual local pressure in the flow (thermodynamic pressure)
Dynamic pressure = pressure change due to velocity
Hydrostatic pressure = pressure change due to height
Total pressure = sum of all parts = constant

The Bernoulli Equation conserves pressure pressure is only converted from one
type to another (Static/Dynamic/Hydrostatic)
T
p Const gz V p = = + + .
2
1
2

Bernoulli Equation
Dividing by specific weight:

Pressure head velocity head elevation head total head
Each term has units of height (m)

Instead if we multiply by specific volume:

Elevation head is equivalent to potential energy per unit mass
Velocity head is equivalent to kinetic energy per unit mass
Pressure head is equivalent to flow work (pv) per unit mass

The Bernoulli Equation is a form of energy conservation (with no thermal or
viscous losses or work or heat additions)
H z
g
V p
= + +
2
2
.
2
2
Const gz
V
pv = + +
Example Stagnation Streamline
Free stream: high velocity (high dynamic pressure),
low static pressure

Stagnation point: zero dynamic pressure, high static
pressure
E.g., sticking your hand out the window of a moving
car
Az
Stagnation Pressure
Stagnation pressure = pressure that will be
achieved if a fluid is brought to rest

Neglecting hydrostatic pressure, stagnation
pressure is simply static + dynamic pressure

2
2
2
2
1
2
1
.
2
1
V p p
V p Const V p
stag
stag stag

+ =
+ = = +
Measuring Static/Stagnation Pressure
A side wall tap measures the
static pressure by converting
static pressure to
hydrodynamic pressure
(pressure head) dynamic
pressure at point 3 is zero (no
slip)
Tap facing into flow converts
static and dynamic pressure
to hydrostatic pressure -
dynamic pressure at point 2 is
NOT zero
Pitot-static Tube
Two concentric
tubes one with a
forward facing tap
and the other with a
side tap
( )
4 3
4
2
3
2
2
1
p p V
p p
V p p
=
=
+ =

Why does the pressure drop between 2 and 1?
Hydraulic grade line
Energy line is
total head of
fluid
(measured by
pitot tube)
Hydraulic
grade line is
pressure and
elevation
head only
(measured by
static tube)
Why does HGL decrease in this system?

Modified Bernoulli Equation
Bernoulli equation can only be used for steady,
inviscid, incompressible flow
Modified forms of equation can be used
carefully for special cases of compressible,
viscous, or unsteady flows
E.g., unsteady Bernoullis (see Sect. 3.8)
2
2
2 2
1
2
1
2
1 1
2
1
2
1
gz V p ds
t
V
gz V p
s
s
+ + =
c
c
+ + +
}
Application of Bernoulli Equation
Free Jets
Confined Flows
Venturi and orifice flowmeters
Sluice gates
Free Jets

If streamlines are straight at jet exit (free jet,
R=) then no pressure gradient across jet,
p
2
=p
1

V
1
=0

2
2
2 2 1
2
1 1
2
1
2
1
gz V p gz V p + + = + +
) ( 2
2 1 2
z z g V =
gh V 2
2
=

Vena Contracta (1)
If a jet exit is too sharp,
the streamlines cannot
turn and flow is smaller
than hole diameter
90 turn would require
infinite pressure gradient
At a-a, pressure is
atmospheric across jet
(straight streamlines)
p
2
>p
1
to cause streamline
curvature
Contraction coefficient =
A
j
/A
h

Vena Contracta (2)

Confined Flows
If a flow is completely enclosed, then no point
must be at atmospheric pressure (or zero
velocity) less information known
Must generally use
VA Q
VA massflow
=
=
Repeat for static taps on
both ends of the manometer
Cavitation
High velocity causes
a locally low
pressure
If static pressure
drops below vapor
pressure of liquid
boiling occurs
This cavitation
leads to gas bubbles
flowing in liquid
until pressure
increases

Orifice and Venturi Meters
Restriction in flow by
orifice or Venturi tube
(specially shaped nozzle)
causes increase in
velocity and decrease in
pressure
For horizontal flow:
2
2 2
2
1 1
2
1
2
1
V p V p + = +
2 2 1 1
A V A V Q = =
Flow Meters

Flow rate is directly related to static pressure
drop across orifice and known geometry
In practice, these must be calibrated to account
for non-uniform flow, viscous effects, etc.
( )
(
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
2
1
2
2 1
2
2
1
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
2
2 1
1
2
1
2
2
1
) (
A
A
p p
A Q
A
A
A
Q
A
Q
A
Q
p p

Sluice Gates
2
2
2 2 1
2
1 1
2
1
2
1
gz V p gz V p + + = + +
2 2 1 1
A V A V Q = =
2
2 2 1
2
1
2
1
) (
2
1
V z z g V = +
( ) | |
2
1 2
2 1
2
2
1
2
2
2
2
2
2 1
2
1
2
2
2 1
1
) ( 2
1 ) ( 2
2
1
) (
z z
z z g
bz Q
z
z
Q z b z z g
bz
Q
bz
Q
z z g

=
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
1 2
2gz bz Q=
If z1>>z2

***ADD**
Add physical interpretation of across
streamline equation and a couple of examples
E.g. Pressure in a vortex
Chapter 4 - Fluid Kinematics
Fluid kinematics = study of fluid motion
without concern for forces driving flow
What is the velocity, acceleration?
In reality, a point in space does not have a
velocity (it is unlikely there is a molecule
exactly at that point)
When we talk velocity of a fluid particle we
mean the average over all molecules in a small
region Continuum Hypothesis
Eulerian - Velocity Field
Eulerian description of flow describes the velocity at
all points at all times
Velocity field is a 3 component vector in 4
dimensions
Movie
Some simpler cases often occur:
Steady 3-D flow

Unsteady, 2-D flow
Movie
Steady, 2-D flow
Movie
Steady, 1-D flow
k t z y x w j t z y x v i t z y x u V
) , , , (
) , , , (
) , , , ( + + =
k z y x w j z y x v i z y x u V
) , , (
) , , (
) , , ( + + =
j y x v i y x u V
) , (
) , ( + =
i x u V
) ( =
j t y x v i t y x u V
) , , (
) , , ( + =

Lagrangian Particle Velocity
Lagrangian description of
flow follows individual
particles
The position of a fluid particle
is

The velocity of that fluid
particle is

This does not tell us what the
velocity will be at a point
away from the fluid particle
k t z j t y i t x r
) (
) (
) ( + + =
dt
r d
V =
Acceleration - Eulerian

In Eulerian representation of velocity

Since x, y, z do not depend on t Eulerian =
fixed coordinates
dt
V d
a =
k t z y x w j t z y x v i t z y x u V
) , , , (
) , , , (
) , , , ( + + =
t
V
k
t
w
j
t
v
i
t
u
dt
V d
c
c
=
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=

Acceleration Lagrangian (1)

In Lagrangian representation of velocity, x, y,
and z depend on t as particle follows flow

dt
V d
a =
k t t z t y t x w j t t z t y t x v i t t z t y t x u V
) ), ( ), ( ), ( (
) ), ( ), ( ), ( (
) ), ( ), ( ), ( ( + + =
k
dt
dz
z
w
dt
dy
y
w
dt
dx
x
w
t
w
j
dt
dz
z
v
dt
dy
y
v
dt
dx
x
v
t
v
i
dt
dz
z
u
dt
dy
y
u
dt
dx
x
u
t
u
dt
V d
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
u
dt
dx
=
v
dt
dy
=
w
dt
dz
=
Acceleration Lagrangian (2)

Lagrangian acceleration includes local acceleration
and change in velocity due to fluid particle motion
k
z
w
w
y
w
v
x
w
u
j
z
v
w
y
v
v
x
v
u
i
z
u
w
y
u
v
x
u
u
t
V
dt
V d
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
V V
t
V
dt
V d
V +
c
c
=
k w j v i u V

+ + =
( ) ( ) ( )
k
z
j
y
i
x

c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
= V
Material Derivative
Material or Substantial derivative includes
local and spatial variation in a quantity
V V
t
V
Dt
V D
V +
c
c
( ) ( )
( )( )

term convective
term unsteady
V
t Dt
D
V +
c
c
z
T
w
y
T
v
x
T
u
t
T
Dt
DT
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
Steady/Unsteady Flow
In steady flow, partial derivatives with respect
to time are zero

However, spatial variations can still cause a
derivative for a fluid particle to be non-zero

z
T
w
y
T
v
x
T
u
z
T
w
y
T
v
x
T
u
t
T
Dt
DT
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
0 =
Dt
DT
0 =
c
c
t
T

Control Volumes / Systems
Just like in Thermo we sometimes consider systems (control
mass, Lagrangian) and sometimes control volumes (Eulerian)
We will start with relationships for systems
m=constant
F=ma
and derive from them relationships for control volumes
Steady Control Volume Unsteady Control Volume Control Mass
Extensive/Intensive
Consider an intensive property b (units/kg)
B=mb (units)

} }
= =
system system
sys
bd bdm B
} }
= =
cv volume control
cv
bd bdm B
dt
bd d
dt
dB
sys
sys
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
}
dt
bd d
dt
dB
cv
cv
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
}
dt
dB
dt
dB
sys
cv
=
Example: Mass, b=1 (B=m)
0 =
dt
dm
sys
m
dt
dm
cv
=
Relating CV and CM (1)
Consider a control mass that moves from (1) to (2) in
ot
Define control volume as common region plus region
I
II I
cv
sys
B B
t
B
Dt
DB

+
c
c
=
2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1
b V A b V A
t
B
Dt
DB
cv
sys
+
c
c
=
AVb b m B = =
Rate change of property B for a system equals

change for a control volume plus
inflow/outflow to control volume
In general:
velocity may not be normal to surface
property and velocity may vary across surface
} }
= =
cs
out
dA n V b b m B

}

c
c
=
c
c
cv
cv
bd
t t
B
Reynolds Transport Theorem

Formal relationship between changes in a control
mass and control volume
This is similar to a material derivative except it
applies to a finite sized control volume and material
derivative applies at a point
RTT becomes material derivative as volume goes to
zero
} }
+
c
c
=
cs cv
sys
dA n V b bd
t Dt
DB

b V
t
b
Dt
Db
V +
c
c
=

Deforming Control Volumes
Reynolds Transport Theorem can be applied to
any CV even if it moves

V is relative velocity
= V
1
-V
0
} }
+
c
c
=
cs cv
sys
dA n V b bd
t Dt
DB

3:57 (19
th
Olympics) versus 4:02 (20
th

Olympics) speed skating (3000 m)
19
th
- Salt Lake City (4200 ft): p = 650 mm Hg
20
th
- Turin, Italy (810 ft): p = 739 mm Hg
Density atm = 1.23 kg/m
3

Find difference in air resistance
Conservation of Mass (1)
Mass is conserved for a system, which by
definition is a control surface that follows a
specific set of mass
Apply Reynolds Transport Theorem with B=m
b=B/m=1
} }
+
c
c
=
cs cv
sys
dA n V b bd
t Dt
DB

} }
+
c
c
=
cs cv
sys
dA n V d
t Dt
Dm

Conservation of Mass (2)
Since mass is conserved, m
sys
=constant
For a closed control surface (a system)
Lagrangian description

For an open control volume (Eulerian
description), this becomes
0
= +
c
c
} }
cs cv
dA n V d
t

}
= = d
Dt
D
Dt
Dm
sys
0
Integral Continuity Equation

For steady flows this becomes

The term

since mass flow is out if V is in same direction as n
0
= +
c
c
} }
cs cv
dA n V d
t

0
=
}
cs
dA n V

}
= =
in out net
cs
m m m dA n V

Uniform Flow
Recall from Thermo 1, for uniform flow

We define average velocity at an inlet or outlet so that

We usually mean average velocity
when we speak about the velocity at
inlet or exit
VA m =
A V m =
A
dA n V
V
cs

Moving Control Volumes
If the control
volume is moving,
the coordinate
system is fixed to
the control volume
The velocity of
flow across the
control surface is
evaluated relative
to this coordinate
system
0
= +
c
c
} }
cs cv
dA n W d
t

cv
V V W

=
Deforming Control Volumes
Deforming control volumes are both moving
and unsteady
Local relative velocities used at all surfaces
0
= +
c
c
} }
cs cv
dA n W d
t

Newtons Second Law

but since mass is conserved for a system

Sum of forces on a system in any direction
equals change in momentum for the system in
that direction
Dt
V D
m a m F
sys sys
sys
= =
( )
Dt
V m D
F
sys
sys
Linear Momentum Equations (1)

Applying Reynolds Transport Theorem with
B=mV, b=V

This is a vector equation (it is really 3
equations in x, y, z directions)
} }
+
c
c
=
cs cv
sys
dA n V V d V
t
F

} }
+
c
c
=
cs cv
sys
dA n V b bd
t Dt
DB

( )
Dt
V m D
F
sys
sys
Integral Linear Momentum

Equations

} }
+
c
c
=
cs cv
sys
dA n V V d V
t
F

} }
} }
} }
+
c
c
=
+
c
c
=
+
c
c
=
cs cv
z
cs cv
y
cs cv
x
dA n V w wd
t
F
dA n V v vd
t
F
dA n V u ud
t
F

z y x
n w n v n u n V

+ + =

Moving Reference Frame
Moving control volumes
can be used
Inertial reference frame
(not accelerating)
Non-inertial reference
frame (accelerating)
Accelerating reference
frames require caution
(relative velocities cannot
simply be used)
Steady Inertial Control Volume
} }
+
c
c
=
cs cv
sys
dA n W V d V
t
F

cv
V V W

=
( ) ( )
} }
+ + +
c
c
=
=
cs
cv
steady
cv
cv
sys
dA n W V W d V W
t
F
) ( 0

} }
+ =
cs
cv
cs
sys
dA n W V dA n W W F

) ( 0

on conservati mass
cs
cv
cs
sys
dA n W V dA n W W F
=
} }
+ =
}
=
cs
sys
dA n W W F

Relative velocities used for

inertial control volumes

Rotating Systems (1)
For rotating systems, the moment of the
momentum equation (angular momentum) is
often convenient
At a point, F=ma becomes
Taking cross product of location of fluid
particle and F=ma
( )
Dt
d V D
Dt
ma D
F

= =

o
o
) (
( ) ( )
( )

=
= d V
Dt
r D
Dt
d V r D
Dt
d V D
r F r

o
( )
( )

) 0 ( 0 = =

=
V V
d V V
Dt
d V r D
F r
o
Rotating Systems (2)
Integrating over a control volume

Applying Reynolds Transport Theorem
(b=rxV)

Moment of momentum equation
( )
} } }
=

=
sys sys sys
d V r
Dt
D
Dt
d V r D
F r
=
sys
d V r
Dt
D
F r
} } }
+
c
c
= =
cs cv sys
sys
dA n V b bd
t
bd
Dt
D
Dt
DB

( ) ( )
} }
+
c
c
=
cs cv
dA n V V r d V r
t
F r

Moment of momentum equation

For a steady system

Sign of rxV and T terms determined by right-
hand-rule

( ) ( )
} }
+
c
c
=
cs
flux momentum angular
momentum angular unsteady
cv
system on torques of Sum
dA n V V r d V r
t
T

( ) ( )
}
=
cs
dA n V V r T

Energy Equation (1)
From Thermo 1, energy of a system follows

where u is the internal energy from thermodynamics
in net in net
sys
W Q
Dt
DE
, ,

+ =
}
=
sys
sys
ed E
gz
V
u pe ke u e + + = + + =
2
2
Energy Equation (2)
Applying Reynolds Transport Theorem with
B=E, b=e
} }
+
c
c
= + =
cs cv
in net in net
sys
dA n V e ed
t
W Q
Dt
DE
, ,

gz
V
u pe ke u e + + = + + =
2
2
} }
+
c
c
=
cs cv
sys
dA n V b bd
t Dt
DB

Work
Work = force through a distance (s)
Can occur internal to system (as shaft work) or work at control
surface (flow work)

Force at flow surface is pressure times area acting in n
direction
Rate change of distance is velocity

+ =
cs
shaft in net
s F W W

,
dA n p V W W
cs
shaft in net
}
+ =
) (
,

( )
in shaft in net
cs cv
W Q dA n V p e ed
t
, ,
+ = + +
c
c
} }

Energy Equation (3)

For steady, uniform flow
in shaft in net
cs cv
W Q dA n V gz
V p
u d gz
V
u
t
, ,
2 2
2 2

+ =
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ + + +
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
c
c
} }

h pv u
p
u = + = +
in shaft in net
cs cv
W Q dA n V gz
V
h d gz
V
u
t
, ,
2 2
2 2

+ =
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ + +
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
c
c
} }

in shaft in net in out
W Q gz
V
h A V gz
V
h A V
, ,
2 2
2 2

+ =
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ +

Steady, Uniform Flow
For a 1 inlet, 1 outlet control volume

If flow is inviscid, shaft work will be zero
in out
in out
W Q gz gz
V V
h h m
, ,
2 2
2 2

+ =
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
W Q gz
V
h m gz
V
h m
, ,
2 2
2 2

+ =
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ +

q gz gz
V V
pv pv u u
in out
in out
in out in out
= + + +
2 2
2 2
loss Bernoulli q u u gz gz
V V
pv pv
in out in out
in out
in out
= + = + +
2 2
2 2
Extended Bernoulli Equation

In units of length (head)

h
L
= head loss
h
s
= shaft work head (pump head)
in shaft in
in
in
in
out
out
out
out
w loss gz
V p
gz
V p
,
2 2
2 2
+ + + + = + +

s l in
in in
out
out out
h h z
g
V
g
p
z
g
V
g
p
+ + + + = + +
2 2
2 2

Why Differential Analysis?
Integral analysis allows us to
compute overall (global) flow
behavior without concern for the
detailed flow inside a device
Integral analysis requires careful
integration at system boundaries
(velocity profiles at exits must
be given or assumed)
Differential analysis is required
when we need to know the
detailed flow behavior at points
inside a system (velocity profiles
are computed directly)
Recirculation zone will not show up in
integral analysis
Fluid Element Motion
Differential equations for fluid flow can be
derived by considering the motions and forces
of small fluid elements
Movie rotation/translation/angular
deformation
Translation
Translation fluid elements translate at local
fluid velocity

z w y v x u V
+ + =
t u x A = A
t v y A = A
t w z A = A
Linear Deformation
Volume of differential fluid element:
Change in volume of fluid element in x direction

In general for 3-D:
( ) zdt y x
x
u
d o o o o
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
=
( ) ( ) z y x o o o o =
( )
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
=
x
u
dt
d o
o
1
( )
V
z
w
y
v
x
u
dt
d

V =
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
o
o
1
Rotation/Angular Deformation (1)
Define angles oo and o| as rotation of x and y
axis
oo o oo ~
c
c
= t
x
v
tan
o| o o| ~
c
c
= t
y
u
tan
Rate of rotation of x and y axis

Note different sign convention for o and |
If e
OA
=-e
OB
then the fluid element will only rotate and
not deform
If e
OA
=+e
OB
then the fluid element will only deform
and not rotate
x
v
t
t
OA
c
c
= =

o
oo
=
o 0
lim
y
u
t
t
OB
c
c
= =

o
o|
=
o 0
lim
Rate of rotation of fluid element
defined as average of e
OA
and -e
OB

Likewise
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
c
c
=
=
y
u
x
v
OB OA
z
2
1
2
= =
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
c
c
=
z
v
y
w
x
2
1
=
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
c
c
=
x
w
z
u
y
2
1
=
Rotation and Vorticity
Rotation rate is a vector:

Vorticity is defined as twice the rotation rate - Movie

|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
c
c
=
y
u
x
v
z
2
1
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
c
c
=
z
v
y
w
x
2
1
=
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
c
c
=
x
w
z
u
y
2
1
=
z y x
z y x

= = = = + + =
w v u
z y x
z y x
V
c
c
c
c
c
c
= V =

2
1
2
1

=
V

V = = = , 2

Angular Deformation
Rate of angular deformation (rate of shearing strain) of
fluid element defined as twice the average of e
OA
and
+e
OB

Likewise
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
=
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
y
u
x
v
OB OA
z
2
2
= =
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
=
z
v
y
w
x
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
=
x
w
z
u
y

Mass Conservation (1)
Previously we derived mass conservation for a
control volume

For a differential element:
We apply control
volume equation to
element and let
dV0
0 = +
c
c
=
} }
cs cv
sys
dA n V d
t Dt
Dm


As volume0, all flows become uniform and
volume integral becomes homogeneous
0 = +
c
c
=
} }
cs cv
sys
dA n V d
t Dt
Dm

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
0
2 2
2 2
2 2
=
|
.
|
\
|
c
c

|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+ +
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c

|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+ +
|
.
|
\
|
c
c

|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+ +
c
c
}
}
} }
x y
z
z
w
w x y
z
z
w
w
z x
y
y
v
v z x
y
y
v
v
z y
x
x
u
u z y
x
x
u
u z y x
t
cs
cs
cs cv
o o
o
o o
o
o o
o
o o
o
o o
o
o o
o
o o o

For steady flow:

For incompressible fluids:

Incompressible flows have zero deformation
(zero dilatation) Velocity field is solenoidal
( ) ( ) ( )
0 =
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
o
z
w
y
v
x
u
t
( ) 0 = V +
c
c
V
t

( ) 0 = V V

0 = V V

Cylindrical Coordinates
Mass conservation can be applied in any
coordinate system:
For cylindrical coordinates

Can look up form for gradient in cylindrical
coordinates:
( ) 0 = V +
c
c
V
t

( ) ( ) ( )
0
1 1
=
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
z
v v
r r
v r
r t
z r

u

u
z v v r v V
z r
+ + = u
u

Stream Function (1)
For plane (2-D) steady incompressible flow,
mass conservation becomes:

Define the stream function, (x,y) such that

Thus, if can be found it automatically
satisfies mass conservation
( ) 0 = V +
c
c
V
t

y
v
x
u
V
c
c
+
c
c
= = V 0

u
y

c
c
v
x

c
c
0 =
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
=
c
c
+
c
c
x y y x y
v
x
u
Stream Function (2)
What is the stream function?

For constant

Line of constant stream function is a
streamline
udy vdx dy
y
dx
x
d + =
c
c
+
c
c
=

0 = d
u
v
dx
dy
=
Stream Function (3)
Since flow cant cross a streamline, flow between two
differentially close streamlines:
Difference in stream
function is flow rate
between streamlines

d dx
x
dy
y
vdx udy dq =
c
c
+
c
c
= =
1 2
= = = =
} }
d vdx udy dq Q

Potential Flow
Potential Flow = Inviscid, Incompressible,
Irrotational
Under these conditions the velocity potential,
|, exists and satisfies:

Laplace equation is linear, so superposition of
solutions can be used (this is generally not true
for fluids since full momentum equation is
nonlinear)
0
2
= V |
( ) g p V V
t
V
t + V + V = V +
c
c
What is the Potential Function?

Thus, if then

Compared to stream function:

Lines of constant | (equipotential lines) are
orthogonal to lines of constant (streamlines)
vdy udx dy
y
dx
x
d + =
c
c
+
c
c
=
| |
|
0 = | d
v
u
dx
dy
=
0 = d
u
v
dx
dy
=
Streamlines/Potential Lines
Streamlines and
equipotential lines
form grid describing
flow
High velocities in
regions where
streamlines are
compressed
Low velocities where
streamlines expand
How is Potential Flow Used?
First, we find the potential function for several simple flows
(next slides)
If we can then describe a new flow as a sum of simple flows,
the total potential function = sum of simple potential functions
Movie Example: flow over a surface can be approximated by
a point source and uniform flow
Simple Flow 1: Uniform Flow
Straight flow in one direction:

If o=0:
x
U u
c
c
= =
|
o cos
y
U v
c
c
= =
|
o sin
) ( cos
) ( sin
y f Ux
x f Uy
+ =
+ =
o |
o |
( ) o o | cos sin x y U + =
Ux = |
Simple Flow 2: Source/Sink
Flow originating from a point with equal velocity in
all directions and a volume flow rate, m

Source (m>0), Sink (m<0)
m=source strength
m rv
r
= t 2
u
|
u
c
c
= =
r
v
1
0
r
m
ln
2t
| =
r
m
r
v
r
t
|
2
=
c
c
=
Example: Flow over a Half-body (1)
Half-body can be approximated as uniform
flow + source (Movie)

Stagnation point occurs at r=b (angle=t)

u | cos Ur Ux = =
r
m
ln
2t
| =
u
u
|
t
u
|
t
u |
u
sin
1
2
cos
ln
2
cos
U
r
v
r
m
U
r
v
r
m
Ur
r
=
c
c
=
+ =
c
c
=
+ =
U
m
b
b
m
U v
r
t
t
t
2
2
cos 0
=
+ = =
Flow over a Half-body (2)
Can also find streamfunction for halfbody (see text):

Value of stream function at stagnation point:

Streamlines from stagnation point:

u
t
u
2
sin
m
Ur
source uniform
+ = + =
2 2
sin
2
m m
U
m
U = +
|
.
|
\
|
= t
t
t
t
( )
( )
u
u t
t
t u
t
u
u
t
u
sin 2
2
sin
2
sin
2
=
=
+ = =
U
m
r
m
Ur
m
Ur
m
Simple Flow 3: Vortex
Flow circulating about a point
Free vortex:

Free vortex is irrotational
Other vortices can be rotational
No potential function
u | K =
r
K
r
v =
c
c
=
u
|
u
1
Circulation
Define the circulation for a closed curve in any
flow as:
For vortex:
}
= I s d V
ccw

u
u
rd v s d V =

K d r
r
K
t u 2 = = I
}
u
t
|
2
I
=
Simple Flow 4: Doublet (1)
A doublet is a combination of a source and sink

As a0
|
|
.
|
\
|
= =
1
2
1 2
ln
2
ln
2
ln
2 r
r m
r
m
r
m
t t t
|
| |
2 / 1
2 2
2
cos 2 u ar a r r r
source
+ + = =
| |
2 / 1
2 2
1
cos 2 u ar a r r r
sink
+ = =
|
.
|
\
|
+
+ =
u
u
t
|
cos 2
cos 4
1 ln
4
2 2
ar a r
ar m
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
.
|
\
|
+
=

r
a m
ar a r
ar m
a a
u
t u
u
t
|
cos
cos 2
cos 4
4
lim lim
2 2
0 0
Simple Flow 4: Doublet (2)
A doublet is a combination of a source and sink

Streamlines:

Why is this useful?
Next slide
r
K
r
ma u
t
u
|
cos cos
= =
|
u cos K
r =
Flow over a Circular Cylinder (1)
Lets combine uniform flow and a doublet to
see what flow that represents:

Choose: where a is the radius of a
cylinder
r
K u
|
cos
=
Ux = |
u u u | cos cos cos
2
r
r
K
U
r
K
Ur
|
.
|
\
|
+ = + =
U a K
2
=
u | cos 1
2
2
Ur
r
a
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
Flow over a Circular Cylinder (2)

Thus

This potential function
happens to yield flow
over a cylinder
u | cos 1
2
2
Ur
r
a
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
u
|
cos 1
2
2
U
r
a
r
v
r
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
c
c
=
u
u
|
u
sin 1
1
2
2
U
r
a
r
v
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
c
c
=
Pressure Distribution over Cylinder
Since potential flow analysis assumes inviscid
incompressible flow, Bernoullis equation can
be used
Pressure on cylinder surface (r=a):
2
2
2
1
2
1
u
v p U p
surface
+ = +
) sin 4 1 (
2
1
sin 4
2
1
2
1
2 2 2 2 2
u u + = + =

U p U U p p
surface
u u
u
sin 2 sin 1
2
2
U U
r
a
v =
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
Pressure Distribution over Cylinder
Comparison of
inviscid and
experimental
pressure
distributions:
) sin 4 1 (
2
1
2 2
u + =

U p p
surface

Momentum Equation (1)
Integral momentum equation for a control
volume:

Apply this to differential element:
Forces:
Normal stress,
o (N/m
2
)
Shear stress,
t (N/m
2
)
Gravity
} }
+
c
c
=
cs cv
sys
dA n V V d V
t
F

In x- direction
z y x g
y z x
F
x
yx
zx xx
x
o o o
t
t o
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=

In x- direction
} }
+
c
c
= +
c
c
VAu
t
u
dA n V V d V
t
cs cv

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
|
.
|
\
|
c
c

|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+ +
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c

|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+ +
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
|
.
|
\
|
c
c

|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+ +
c
c
=
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
z
z
u
u y x
z
z
w
w
z
z
u
u y x
z
z
w
w
y
y
u
u z x
y
y
v
v
y
y
u
u z x
y
y
v
v
x
x
u
u z y
x
x
u
u
x
x
u
u z y
x
x
u
u z y x
t
u
u
A
V
o
o o
o
o
o o
o
o
o o
o
o
o o
o
o
o o
o
o
o o
o
o o o

Dividing by volume and equating to force:

Subtracting mass conservation times u:

|
.
|
\
|
c
c
|
.
|
\
|
c
c

|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+ +
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c

|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+ +
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
|
.
|
\
|
c
c

|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+ +
c
c
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
2 2
1
2 2
1
2 2
1
2 2
1
2 2
1
2 2
1
z
z
u
u
z
w
z
w z
z
u
u
z
w
z
w
y
y
u
u
y
v
y
v y
y
u
u
y
v
y
v
x
x
u
u
x
u
x
u x
x
u
u
x
u
x
u
t
u
g
y z x
x
yx
zx xx
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o

t
t o
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
u
z
w
z
u
w u
y
v
y
u
v u
x
u
x
u
u
t
u
t
u
g
y z x
x
yx
zx xx

t
t o
0 =
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
u
z
w
u
y
v
u
x
u
u
t

The normal stress is due to both viscous stress
(t) and pressure

|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
z
u
w
y
u
v
x
u
u
t
u
g
y z x x
p
x
yx
zx xx

t
t t
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
z
v
w
y
v
v
x
v
u
t
v
g
x z y y
p
y
xy zy yy

t t t
xx xx
p t o + =
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
z
w
w
y
w
v
x
w
u
t
w
g
x y z z
p
z
xz
yz
zz

t
t
t
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
z
u
w
y
u
v
x
u
u
t
u
g
y z x
x
yx
zx xx

t
t o
( ) g p V V
t
V
t + V + V = V +
c
c
Momentum Equation

|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
z
u
w
y
u
v
x
u
u
t
u
g
y z x x
p
x
yx
zx xx

t
t t
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
z
v
w
y
v
v
x
v
u
t
v
g
x z y y
p
y
xy zy yy

t t t
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
z
w
w
y
w
v
x
w
u
t
w
g
x y z z
p
z
xz
yz
zz

t
t
t
( ) g p V V
t
V
t + V + V = V +
c
c
Inviscid Flow

In inviscid flow there is no shear stress (t=0)
Euler equation:

Steady inviscid flow:

(see text for proof that this reduces to Bernoulli
equation)
Neglecting gravity:
( ) g p V V
t
V
t + V + V = V +
c
c
( ) g p V V
t
V

+ V = V +
c
c
1
( ) g p V V

+ V = V
1
( ) p V V V = V

1
Irrotational Flows (1)
Define the velocity potential

Vorticity is:

Only irrotational flows have a velocity potential
v
y

c
c|
u
x

c
c|
w
z

c
c|
| V =

V
0

=
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
+
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
c
c
+
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
c
c
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
c
c
=
k
x y y x
j
z x x z
i
y z z y
k
y
u
x
v
j
x
w
z
u
i
z
v
y
w
| | | | | |
,
Irrotational Flows (2)
For incompressible, irrotational flow, mass
conservation is:

This is a much easier equation to solve than
momentum and is useful if flow can be
approximated as irrotational and incompressible
We will see, only inviscid flows can be
irrotational
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
0
z y x
V
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
= V = V V = = V
| | |
| |

Full Momentum Equation
Need model for viscous forces (t)
( ) g p V V
t
V
t + V + V = V +
c
c
dy
du
t =
Newtonian Fluids (1)

is
just part of the
full viscous
stress
The complete
model:
dy
du
t =
yx xy
x
v
y
u
t t =
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
=
zy yz
y
w
z
v
t t =
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
=
zx xz
z
u
x
w
t t =
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
=
x
u
xx
c
c
= t 2
y
v
yy
c
c
= t 2
z
w
zz
c
c
= t 2
Newtonian Fluids (2)
The viscous stress tensor for Newtonian fluids:

If viscosity is constant:
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
=
z
w
y
w
z
v
z
u
x
w
y
w
z
v
y
v
x
v
y
u
z
u
x
w
x
v
y
u
x
u
2
2
2
t
( )
( )
( )
( ) V V
V
z
w
V
y
v
V
x
u
z
w
y
w
y z
v
x z
u
x
w
z y
w
z
v
y
v
x
v
x y
u
z
u
z x
w
y x
v
y
u
x
u

V V + V =
(
(
(
(
(
(
V
c
c
+ V
V
c
c
+ V
V
c
c
+ V
=
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c c
c
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
c c
c
+
c
c
|
|
.
|
\
|
c c
c
+
c
c
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c c
c
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c c
c
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
c c
c
+
c
c
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
= V t
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2 2 2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2 2
2
2 2 2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
Navier-Stokes Equations

Substituting viscous stress tensor yields NSE
( ) g p V V
t
V
t + V + V = V +
c
c
( ) ( ) g V V p V V
t
V

+ V V + V + V = V +
c
c
2
x
g
z
w
y
v
x
u
x z
u
y
u
x
u
x
p
z
u
w
y
u
v
x
u
u
t
u
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
2
2
2
2
2
2
y
g
z
w
y
v
x
u
y z
v
y
v
x
v
y
p
z
v
w
y
v
v
x
v
u
t
v
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
2
2
2
2
2
2
z
g
z
w
y
v
x
u
z z
w
y
w
x
w
z
p
z
w
w
y
w
v
x
w
u
t
w
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
2
2
2
2
2
2
NSE Example: Flow between plates
Infinite plates in x and z, steady flow, g
y
=-g,
1-D flow (v=w=0)
0
) (
=
c
c
=
c
c
=
c
c
z x
u
t
u
2
2
0
y
u
x
p
c
c
+
c
c
= g
y
p

c
c
= 0
0 0 =
Flow between plates (2)

Flow is parabolic

Flow rate per unit width
2
2
0
y
u
x
p
c
c
+
c
c
=
g
y
p

c
c
= 0
) (x f gy p + =
y
u
x g y
x
p
c
c
= +
c
c
) (
1
) (
2
1
2
x h y
x
p
u +
c
c
=
2
2
1
) ( 0 ) ( h
x
p
x h h u
c
c
= =
0 ) ( 0 ) 0 ( = =
c
c
x g
y
u
( )
2 2
2
1
h y
x
p
u
c
c
=
( )
x
p h
h
h
x
p
dy h y
x
p
udy q
h h
c
c
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
=
c
c
= =
} }
3 3 2
1
2
1
2
3
3
3
0
2 2
0
x
p h
u
c
c
=
2
2
max
Keys to Success
Start with full NSE
Make reasonable assumptions and eliminate
terms
Solve simplified differential equations
Apply boundary conditions

Navier-Stokes Equations

Review

( ) ( ) g V V p V V
t
V

+ V V + V + V = V +
c
c
2
x
g
z
w
y
v
x
u
x z
u
y
u
x
u
x
p
z
u
w
y
u
v
x
u
u
t
u
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
2
2
2
2
2
2
y
g
z
w
y
v
x
u
y z
v
y
v
x
v
y
p
z
v
w
y
v
v
x
v
u
t
v
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
2
2
2
2
2
2
z
g
z
w
y
v
x
u
z z
w
y
w
x
w
z
p
z
w
w
y
w
v
x
w
u
t
w
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
2
2
2
2
2
2
Couette Flow (1)
Flow driven by moving plate
1-D, steady, infinite in z and x
v=w=0

Same equations at pressure driven flow
boundary conditions are different
2
2
0
y
u
x
p
c
c
+
c
c
=
g
y
p

c
c
= 0
U b u u = = ) ( , 0 ) 0 (
) (x f gy p + =
) ( ) (
2
1
2
x h y x g y
x
p
u + +
c
c
=
Couette Flow (2)

U b u u = = ) ( , 0 ) 0 (
) ( ) (
2
1
2
x h y x g y
x
p
u + +
c
c
=
0 ) ( = x h
) (
2
x g
x
p b
b
U
=
c
c
( )
b
Uy
by y
x
p
u +
c
c
=
2
2
1
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
=
b
y
b
y
x
p
U
b
b
y
U
u
1
2
2
Pipe Flow (1)

1-D steady flow (v
r
=0, v
u
=0), axisymmetric
(see p. 321 for full cylindrical NSE)

No gradients in z (besides pressure)
2
2
2
1
z
v
r
v
r
r r z
p
z
v
v
z z z
z
c
c
+
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
c
c
+
c
c
=
c
c

|
.
|
\
|
c
c
c
c
=
c
c
r
v
r
r r z
p
z
1
Pipe Flow (2)

Boundary conditions:
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
c
c
=
c
c
r
v
r
r r z
p
z
1
0 ) 0 ( =
c
c
r
v
z
0 ) ( = R v
z
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
= +
c
c
r
v
r z f r
z
p
z
) (
2
1
2
0 ) ( = z f
) (
4
1
2
z g r
z
p
v
z
+
c
c
=
2
4
1
) ( R
z
p
z g
c
c
=
( )
2 2
4
1
R r
z
p
v
z

c
c
=
Pipe Flow (3)

Movie Parabolic velocity profiles in pipe
flow
( )
2 2
4
1
R r
z
p
v
z

c
c
=
z
p R
v
c
c
=
4
2
max
( )
z
p R R R
z
p
rdr R r
z
p
Q
R
c
c
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
=
c
c
=
}

t
t
t
8 2 4 2
2
4
1
4 4 4
0
2 2
2 8
max
2
v
z
p R
A
Q
V =
c
c
= =

Unsteady Flow (1)
Infinite plate, infinite fluid (in z and x), fluid
initially at rest, 1-D flow
At t=0, plate moves at velocity U
2
2
y
u
t
u
c
c
=
c
c

g
y
p

c
c
= 0
0 0 =
0
) ( ) (
=
c
c
=
c
c
z x
0 = = w v
C gy p + =
Unsteady Flow (2)
Similarity solution:
Assume solution is of form:

2
2
y
u
t
u
c
c
=
c
c

2
2
2
2
2
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
c
c
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
c
c
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
c
c
c
c
=
c
c
c
c
y
u
y
u
y
u
y t
u q
q
v
q
q
v
q
q
v
q
q
|
.
|
\
|
' ' + ' = |
.
|
\
|
'
t
f f
t t
y
f
4
1
) 0 (
4
v
v
t
y
f u
v
q q
2
: ) ( = =
f f ' ' = ' q 2
2 1
) ( C erf C f + = q
A simple problem
Consider flow out of an infinitely long slot
Problem is 2-D (w=0, d/dz=0), steady, gravity
negligible, incompressible
x
y
V
Governing Equations (1)

Simplify to
x
g
z
w
y
v
x
u
x z
u
y
u
x
u
x
p
z
u
w
y
u
v
x
u
u
t
u
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
2
2
2
2
2
2
y
g
z
w
y
v
x
u
y z
v
y
v
x
v
y
p
z
v
w
y
v
v
x
v
u
t
v
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
2
2
2
2
2
2
z
g
z
w
y
v
x
u
z z
w
y
w
x
w
z
p
z
w
w
y
w
v
x
w
u
t
w
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
2
2
2
2
2
2
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
c
c
+
c
c
y
v
x
u
x y
u
x
u
x
p
y
u
v
x
u
u
2
2
2
2
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
c
c
+
c
c
y
v
x
u
y y
v
x
v
y
p
y
v
v
x
v
u
2
2
2
2
0 0 =
0 =
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
z
w
y
v
x
u
t

0 =
c
c
+
c
c
y
v
x
u
Governing Equations (2)

Three equations, three unknowns (u, v, p)
u=u(x,y,,), v=v(x,y,,), p=p(x,y,,)
Problem has a solution, but cannot simply
integrate equations
CFD is an approach to estimate an answer to
governing equations
2
2
2
2
1
y
u
x
u
x
p
y
u
v
x
u
u
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
c
c
+
c
c
u u
2
2
2
2
1
y
v
x
v
y
p
y
v
v
x
v
u
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
c
c
+
c
c
u u
0 =
c
c
+
c
c
y
v
x
u
Computational Mesh
Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) solves
these differential equations on a grid
u=u(x
i
,y
i
,,), v=v(x
i
,y
i
,,), p=p(x
i
,y
i
,,)
x
i
and y
i
are discrete spacing Ax and Ay
NxN number of nodes

Examples of Meshes

Numerical Methods
Finite Difference
Differential form of governing equations are discretized
and solved

Finite Volume
On each cell, conservation laws are applied at a discrete
point of the cell [node].
Integral Control Volume Form of
Governing Equations
Taylor Series Expansion

Differential is converted to discrete algebraic
expression:

Error of order (Ax)
2
( ) ( )
! 3 ! 2 ! 1
3
,
3
3
2
,
2
2
,
, , 1
x
x
u x
x
u x
x
u
u u
j i j i
j i
j i j i
A
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
A
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
A
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+ =
+
( ) ( )
! 3
2
! 1
2
3
,
3
3
,
, 1 , 1
x
x
u x
x
u
u u
j i
j i
j i j i
A
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
A
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
=
+
( ) ( )
! 3 ! 2 ! 1
3
,
3
3
2
,
2
2
,
, , 1
x
x
u x
x
u x
x
u
u u
j i j i
j i
j i j i
A
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
A
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
A
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
=
( )
6 2
2
,
3
3
, 1 , 1
,
x
x
u
x
u u
x
u
j i
j i j i
j i
A
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
=
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
x
u u
x
u
j i j i
j i
A
~
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
2
, 1 , 1
,
Second Derivatives

With an error of order (Ax)
2

( ) ( )
! 3 ! 2 ! 1
3
,
3
3
2
,
2
2
,
, , 1
x
x
u x
x
u x
x
u
u u
j i j i
j i
j i j i
A
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
A
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
A
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+ =
+
( ) ( )
! 4
2
! 2
2 2
4
,
4
4
2
,
2
2
, , 1 , 1
x
x
u x
x
u
u u u
j i j i
j i j i j i
A
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
A
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+ = +
+
( ) ( )
! 3 ! 2 ! 1
3
,
3
3
2
,
2
2
,
, , 1
x
x
u x
x
u x
x
u
u u
j i j i
j i
j i j i
A
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
A
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
A
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
=
( )
( )
12
2
2
,
4
4
2
, 1 , , 1
,
2
2
x
x
u
x
u u u
x
u
j i
j i j i j i
j i
A
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
A
+
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
( )
2
, 1 , , 1
,
2
2
2
x
u u u
x
u
j i j i j i
j i
A
+
~
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
Discretized Equations
Apply the derivative estimates to the
governing equations:

Similar additional equation for v momentum
2
2
2
2
1
y
u
x
u
x
p
y
u
v
x
u
u
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
c
c
+
c
c
u u
0 =
c
c
+
c
c
y
v
x
u
x
u u
x
u
j i j i
j i
A
~
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+ , , 1
,
( )
2
, 1 , , 1
,
2
2
2
x
u u u
x
u
j i j i j i
j i
A
+
~
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
( ) ( )
2
1 , , 1 ,
2
, 1 , , 1 , 1 , 1 1 , 1 ,
,
, 1 , 1
,
2 2
2
1
2 2 y
u u u
x
u u u
x
p p
y
u u
v
x
u u
u
j i j i j i j i j i j i j i j i j i j i
j i
j i j i
j i
A
+
+
A
+
+
A
=
A
+
A
+ + + + +
u u
0
1 , 1 , , 1 , 1
=
A
+
A
+ +
y
v v
x
u u
j i j i j i j i
System of Algebraic Equations
Discretization turns 3 partial differential
equations into thousands of algebraic
equations (3 for each mesh point i,j)
E.g.:

(2,2)

(4,2)
0
1 , 1 , , 1 , 1
=
A
+
A
+ +
y
v v
x
u u
j i j i j i j i
0
1 , 2 3 , 2 2 , 1 2 , 3
=
A
+
A
y
v v
x
u u
0
1 , 4 3 , 4 2 , 3 2 , 5
=
A
+
A
y
v v
x
u u
NxN number of algebraic
equations
Boundary Conditions
Since the mesh is finite, derivatives must be
computed differently at the edge of the mesh
(u
-1,-1
doesnt exist)
Boundary conditions must be specified at all
mesh edges
Boundary conditions
are always approximations
of realistic conditions
u,v=0
d/dx=0
d/dy=0
u=U, v=0
CFD Output Infinite slot (1)
Solution is only available at grid points
interpolation used for values between grid points
CFD Output Infinite slot (2)
CFD Output Vortex Generation
Many CFD simulations are unsteady to capture
transient features of flow
Cylinders in cross flow shed vortices that can
be visualized by streamlines
Movie CFD computed streamlines over
bluff-body
Errors in CFD
Numerical error the iterative solution did not
find the correct answer to the algebraic
equations
Discretization error the derivative estimates
were not accurate enough (Ax too large)
Governing equation error a term was
removed that shouldnt have been (gravity?)
Boundary condition error the boundary
conditions do not reflect reality
CFD Validation/Accuracy (1)
Numerical error can be
assessed by examining
residuals

Residuals would ideally
be zero, but actually
converge to a small
constant value
Once the residuals are
sufficiently small the
algebraic equations
have been solved but
they still may be
innaccurate
Residual
y
v v
x
u u
j i j i j i j i
=
A
+
A
+ + 1 , 1 , , 1 , 1
CFD Validation/Accuracy (1)
Discretization error can be assessed by
recomputing a solution on a finer/different grid
The difference in the solutions is an estimate of
effect of grid (grid independence)
Errors in governing equations and boundary
conditions can be assessed by turning on/off
physical terms or by adding perturbations to
boundary conditions (sensitivity studies)
Finally, simulations for some cases should be
compared to experiments (validation)
Post-Processing
Solution from CFD must be post-processed to
extract information of interest
E.g.: Flowlab assignment you will integrate
velocity profiles to compute mass and
momentum flux
}

} }
A ~ = = =
i
i i i
r r u urdr udA ndA V m t t 2 2
CFD Overview
Simplify equations as far as possible
Discretize equations using a finite grid (derivatives
become differences)
A few partial differential equations become
thousands+ of algebraic equations
Solve using numerical methods (ME elective course)
Validate solution to insure accuracy Even with
commercial CFD codes this step MUST be done by
user
CFD always gives a pretty answer you must work
to make sure that answer is useful
Why Dimensional Analysis?
Imagine we are interested in the solution to
flow in a round pipe for 1000 different
combinations of velocity, fluid type (density,
viscosity), and pipe diameter
Do we have to perform 1000 experiments?
1000 calculations?

Dimensional analysis determines how these
1000 cases are related to minimize the number
of independent calculations/experiments that
must be performed
Problem Variables
For the pipe flow example, assuming the pipe
is smooth and the velocity profile does not
change with position in the pipe, the variables
are (experience required to generate this list)
Pipe diameter, D
Centerline velocity, V
Viscosity,
Density,
Pressure drop, Ap
Pipe length, L
) , , , , ( L D V f p = A
Buckingham Pi Theorem (1)
If an equation involving k variables is
dimensionally homogeneous, it can be reduced
to a relationship among k-r independent
dimensionless groups, where r is the minimum
number of dimensions required to describe the
variables
Buckingham Pi Theorem (2)
k=6
Ap (N/m
2
), (kg/m
3
), (N-s/m
2
), V (m/s), D
(m), L (m)
Both kg and N are not independent dimensions
since 1 N = 1 kg-m/s
2
; thus (N-s
2
/m
4
)
r=3 (N, m, s)

Ap relationship can be expressed with k-r=3
dimensionless Pi groups
) , , , , ( L D V f p = A
Dimensionless Pi Groups (1)
To determine Pi groups
Select one variable for each of the independent
dimensions (N, s, m) these are called repeating
variables
E.g.: D (for m), V (for s), (for N)
For the other non-repeating k-r variables construct
dimensionless parameters using only the non-
repeating variable and the repeating variables as
needed
Dimensionless Pi Groups (2)
Ap (N/m
2
)

This is dimensionless for x=-1, y=-2, z=0

(N-s/m
2
)
x=-1, y=-1, z=-1

L (m)
By inspection
| | ( )
z
y
x
m D
s
m
V
m
s N
m
N
p
|
|
.
|
\
|
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
(

|
|
.
|
\
|
(
A
4
2
2

1
2
H =
A
V
p
| | ( )
z
y
x
m D
s
m
V
m
s N
m
s N
|
|
.
|
\
|
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
(

|
|
.
|
\
|
(

4
2
2

2
H =
VD
3
H =
D
L
Result of Pi Group Construction

Becomes

The Pi groups are not unique, we could form different
dimensionless ratios but in any case we would get a
relationship among a non-dimensional pressure drop
versus two non-dimensional groups
) , , , , ( L D V f p = A
1
2
H =
A
V
p
2
H =
VD
3
H =
D
L
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
| A
D
L VD
f
V
p
,
2
Common Dimensionless Groups

Some groups are used so often that we have
named them: (many more than shown here)
Reynolds number
Inertial forces/viscous forces
Froude number
Inertia/gravity
Euler number
Pressure/momentum

Mach number
c=speed of sound
VD
= Re
gL
V
Fr =
2
V
p
Eu
A
=
c
V
Ma =

Reynolds Number
Re is the most important parameter in fluid
mechanics it defines the relative importance
of viscosity to inertial forces
Low Re, viscosity dominates
High Re, inertia dominates
Movie Effect of Reynolds number on
viscous behavior
We will see later that Re also determines when
laminar flows become turbulent
VD
= Re
A Specific Example Pipe Flow
We derived previously for laminar pipe flow

Thus,

At pipe center

Integrating
( )
2 2
4
1
R r
z
p
v
z

c
c
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
| A
D
L VD
f
V
p
,
2
( ) z
p
R r
v
z
c
c
=
2 2
4
( ) z
p
R
V
c
c
=
2
4
( )
L
R
V
p
2
4
= A
( )
D
L
VD
L
D V
V
p
16
2 /
4
2 2
= =
A
|
.
|
\
|
=
D
L
Eu
Re
16
Compiling Data
You perform many experiments of, for
example, pipe flow pressure drop versus
V,D,L,,
Data should be reported in terms of non-
dimensional Pi groups simplest, most useful
way to report relationships among variables
Following examples: 1 Pi group, 2 Pi groups, 3
Pi groups
Problems with 1 Pi Group
Assume the drag, F, on a spherical particle
falling through a viscous fluid is a function of
diameter, d, velocity, V, and viscosity,
F[N]=f(d[m],V[m/s],[N-s/m
2
])
k=4, r=3 (N,m,s) 1 Pi group

Experiment determines

F
. ) ( Cons nothing f
Vd
F
= =
3 =
Vd
F
Vd F t 3 =
Terminal Velocity
The sphere will reach steady state (constant V)
when the drag force and buoyancy force equal
the weight terminal velocity

Stokes Law:
mg
g g Vd
mg F F
sphere fluid
bouy drag
= +
= +
t 3
F
drag
+F
b

( ) g r r V
f s
3
3
4
2 3 t t =
( ) g r V
f s term
2
9
2
=

Problems with 2 Pi Groups
The pressure drop in a fixed-length pipe
k=5, r=3
Data taken for water
and glycerin in a 0.5 in pipe

) , , , ( D V f p = A
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
| A
VD
f
V
p
2
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Velocity (ft/s)
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

D
r
o
p

(
l
b
f
/
f
t
^
2
)

Water
Glycerin
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
0 20000 40000 60000 80000 100000 120000
VD/
A
p
/
V
^
2
Water
Glycerin
Problems with 2 Pi Groups (2)
Collapse of multiple data sets confirms
assumptions in Pi group development

For a 5-foot pipe:

|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
| A
VD
f
V
p
2
y = 18.235x
-0.2456
R
2
= 0.9996
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
0 20000 40000 60000 80000 100000 120000
VD/
A
p
/
V
^
2
Water
Glycerin
Power (Water)
246 . 0
2
24 . 18

|
|
.
|
\
|
=
A
VD
V
p
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
0 20000 40000 60000 80000 100000 120000
VD/
A
p
/
V
^
2
Water
Glycerin
L/D=240
L/D=60
L/D=120
Problems with 3+ Pi Groups
Now we also vary pipe length

) , , , , ( L D V f p = A
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
| A
D
L VD
f
V
p
,
2

Problems with 1 Pi Group
Assume the drag, F, on a spherical particle
falling through a viscous fluid is a function of
diameter, d, velocity, V, and viscosity,
F[N]=f(d[m],V[m/s],[N-s/m
2
])
k=4, r=3 (N,m,s) 1 Pi group

Experiment determines

F
. ) ( Cons nothing f
Vd
F
= =
3 =
Vd
F
Vd F t 3 =
Terminal Velocity
The sphere will reach steady state (constant V)
when the drag force and buoyancy force equal
the weight terminal velocity

Stokes Law:
mg
g g Vd
mg F F
sphere fluid
bouy drag
= +
= +
t 3
F
drag
+F
b

( ) g r r V
f s
3
3
4
2 3 t t =
( ) g r V
f s term
2
9
2
=
Problems with 2 Pi Groups
The pressure drop in a fixed-length pipe
k=5, r=3
Data taken for water
and glycerin in a 0.5 in pipe

) , , , ( D V f p = A
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
| A
VD
f
V
p
2
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Velocity (ft/s)
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

D
r
o
p

(
l
b
f
/
f
t
^
2
)

Water
Glycerin
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
0 20000 40000 60000 80000 100000 120000
VD/
A
p
/
V
^
2
Water
Glycerin
Problems with 2 Pi Groups (2)
Collapse of multiple data sets confirms
assumptions in Pi group development

For a 5-foot pipe:

|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
| A
VD
f
V
p
2
y = 18.235x
-0.2456
R
2
= 0.9996
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
0 20000 40000 60000 80000 100000 120000
VD/
A
p
/
V
^
2
Water
Glycerin
Power (Water)
246 . 0
2
24 . 18

|
|
.
|
\
|
=
A
VD
V
p
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
0 20000 40000 60000 80000 100000 120000
VD/
A
p
/
V
^
2
Water
Glycerin
L/D=240
L/D=60
L/D=120
Problems with 3+ Pi Groups
Now we also vary pipe length

) , , , , ( L D V f p = A
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
| A
D
L VD
f
V
p
,
2
Why Modeling?

Sometimes this is really how we design
things
Tacoma Narrows Bridge
Bridge collapse in WA (1940) due to wind-
induced oscillations

Movie
Modeling

New Tacoma Narrows bridge to have two
supsension structures side-by-side
Scale models used to test expensive designs
New bridge tested in 9mx9m NRC wind tunnel
How can we trust the results from the model?
Model Similarity (1)
We are interested in knowing a particular
variable for a large design (drag, pressure
drop, oscillation frequency, etc.)
IF we know what other variables affect the
variable of interest then we can generalize the
relationship in terms of Pi groups
,...) , (
3 2 1
H H = H f
If we build a model that has the same value of
all dependent PI groups, then the dependent Pi
group measured will be accurate

If:

Then:

real , 2 mod , 2
H = H
real , 3 mod , 3
H = H
real , 1 mod , 1
H = H
,...) , (
3 2 1
H H = H f
Example:
I want to know the pressure drop that will
occur in a 3-foot diameter, 1 mile long oil pipe
while pumping 500 lbm/s of oil (this
determines the size of pump required)
I have a pipe to experiment with

Choose pipe length so that L/D is the same
Choose fluid and velocity so that Re is the
same
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
A
D
L
f
V
p
Re,
2
Example: (cont.)

|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
A
D
L
f
V
p
Re,
2

In practice it may not be possible to have all
dependent Pi groups match reality must use
experience to capture most important effects
Validation of model must be used to insure
that all variables were included when
developing Pi groups
Movie Physical model of plume
disbursement in city

Pipe Flow
We have already derived the
equation for pressure driven
laminar flow in a round pipe
with no gradients in the flow
direction
However, this geometry is
important enough to
consider in greater detail
Two additional effects
Turbulence
Entrance length
( )
2 2
4
1
R r
z
p
v
z

c
c
=
2
max
v
V =
What is Turbulence?
Turbulent flows contain fluctuations in
velocity
These fluctuations are coherent leading to
structures in the flow
Movie Turbulence in a stirred bowl, small
eddies dissipate first

Turbulence at a Point

For laminar flow u=0 (no fluctuations)
Turbulent flow fluctuations around 25%
) ( ' ) ( t u u t u + =
Transition to Turbulent Flow
Movie Turbulence in pipe flow
Original experiment of Osborne Reynolds
Importance of Reynolds Number
Experiments of Reynolds showed
Laminar flow Re<2100
Turbulent flow Re>4000
Transitional flow 2100<Re<4000
Laminar part of the time
Turbulent part of the time
Weakly turbulent
Turbulence occurs when inertial forces are
much greater than viscous forces
VD
= Re

Entrance Region
Entrance length is region in a pipe where flow
adjusts to fully-developed profile
Fully developed profile is solution we found
previously (no gradients in x)
Entrance Region
Entrance length is region in a pipe where flow
adjusts to fully-developed profile
Fully developed profile is solution we found
previously (no gradients in x)
Entrance Length
Correlations for entrance length:
Laminar flow:

Turbulent flow:

Laminar flows: l=0.5-125 D (Re=10-2100)
Turbulent flows: l=18-50 D (Re=4000-2x10
6
)
Re 06 . 0 =
D
l
e
6 / 1
Re 4 . 4 =
D
l
e
Pressure Drop in Pipe Flow
Pressure drop is linear in fully developed region
Entrance region has extra loss due to higher velocity
gradients at wall

Friction Factor
We found a non-dimensional relationship for
laminar pipe flow (based on centerline V):

Based on average velocity:

The friction factor, f is defined such that:
for laminar flow:
|
.
|
\
|
=
D
L
Eu
Re
16
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
= A
D
L
VD
V p
16
2
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
= A
D
L
V f p
2
2
1
D
L
V
D
L
D V
V p
2 2
Re
32
2
16 4
=
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
= A
Re
64
= f
Head Loss in Terms of f
Recall from modified Bernoullis equation

Friction factor is directly related to loss in pipe
flow
l
h z
g
V p
z
g
V p
+ + + = + +
2
2
2 2
1
2
1 1
2 2
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
A
=
D
L
g
V
f
p
h
l
2
2

Effect of Wall Roughness
Wall roughness
also increases
friction factor
c, is height of
average
perturbation of
wall shape
Friction Factor
The friction factor, f, is defined such that

Thus,

For laminar flow f=64/Re
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
A
D D
L VD
g
V
p c
, ,
2
1
2
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
= A
D
L
V f p
2
2
1
|
.
|
\
|
=
D
g f
c
Re,
Moody Chart

Head Loss
Moody chart used to estimate f for a turbulent
flow
Head loss for pipes in a system added together
to determine total pressure drop
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
A
=
D
L
g
V
f
p
h
L
2
2
L
h z
g
V p
z
g
V p
+ + + = + +
1
2
1 1
1
2
1 1
2 2
Minor Losses (1)
Additional elements in a pipe flow system can
cause pressure loss
Loss coefficient, K
L

2
2
1
V
p
K
L
A
=
g
V
K h
L L
2
2
minor ,
=
Minor Losses (2)

Moody Chart

Minor Losses
Loss coefficients
are tabulated for
may conditions
Specified by
manufacturers of
flow products

Turbulent Flow
The average defined by:
) ( ' ) ( t u u t u + =
}
+
=
T t
t
udt
T
u
1
0 ) ( ' = t u
0 '
2
> u
' ' v u
Turbulent Transport
Correlation in velocity fluctuations can lead to
enhanced transport of momentum
Enhanced transport appears to be extra
viscosity
0 ' ' > v u
Turbulent Viscosity
In turbulent flows shear stress (from nonlinear
udu/dx terms):

Where the turbulent or eddy viscosity is

If we can define q then we can solve for the
average velocity profile
( )
y
u
v u
y
u
t xy
c
c
+ =
c
c
= t ' '
y u
v u
t
c c
=
/
' '
q
Turbulence Modeling
There are no exact solutions in turbulent flows
a model for q must be assumed
For different problems a variety of models for
q have been proposed/tested
None are perfect for some cases they work
and others they fail
Turbulence modeling is an active research area
A Turbulent Model Example
Prandtl proposed the so-called mixing length
model:

Where the mixing length, l, is defined as the
distance to a wall (in bounded flows)
In other problems l is defined differently

y
u
l
c
c
=
2
q
Pipe Flow
Fluctuations in
velocity carry
extra momentum
toward wall
Higher mean
velocity gradients
at wall
Friction higher
for turbulent
flows
n
R
r
U
u
/ 1
1
|
.
|
\
|
=
Effect of Reynolds Number
As Re increases, exponent of velocity profile
increases larger friction at wall
Movie Laminar versus turbulent pipe
velocity profile

n
R
r
U
u
/ 1
1
|
.
|
\
|
=
External Flow over Objects
When an
external flow
encounters an
object, the no-
slip condition
causes steep
velocity
gradients at the
surface
The region
over which the
object is felt by
the flow is
called the
boundary layer
Far from the object the flow remains
uniform and viscous effects can be
neglected since there are no appreciable
velocity gradients
External Flow over Objects
When an
external flow
encounters an
object, the no-
slip condition
causes steep
velocity
gradients at the
surface
The region
over which the
object is felt by
the flow is
called the
boundary layer
Far from the object the flow remains
uniform and viscous effects can be
neglected since there are no appreciable
velocity gradients
Boundary Layer
The velocity profile in the
boundary layer goes from zero
at the wall to the free stream
value at infinity
The thickness of the boundary
layer is defined as, o =
y(u=0.99), where the velocity
is 99% of the free stream value
Solution of Boundary Layer
Navier Stokes equations for 2-D B-L:

Neglecting (1) unsteady effects, (2) gradients
and flow in z-direction, (3) gravity
Plus mass conservation:
x
g
z
w
y
v
x
u
x z
u
y
u
x
u
x
p
z
u
w
y
u
v
x
u
u
t
u
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
2
2
2
2
2
2
y
g
z
w
y
v
x
u
y z
v
y
v
x
v
y
p
z
v
w
y
v
v
x
v
u
t
v
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
y
u
x
u
x
p
y
u
v
x
u
u
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
c
c
+
c
c

2
2
2
2
y
v
x
v
y
p
y
v
v
x
v
u
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
c
c
+
c
c

0 =
c
c
+
c
c
y
v
x
u
Blasius Assumptions
Blasius (1908) student of Prandtl
Noted that boundary layers are small (o/L<<1)
Therefore v<<u, d/dx<<d/dy

Thus dp/dy must be small pressure is constant
across a boundary layer
The pressure of the free stream is imposed on the
surface

small
small
small
small
small
y
v
x
v
y
p
y
v
v
x
v
u
2
2
2
2
2 2
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
c
c
+
c
c

Flow Over a Flat Plate
Since the free
stream for flow over
a flat plate is
uniform velocity,
dp/dx=0
2
2
2
2
2
y
u
x
u
x
p
y
u
v
x
u
u
small
zero
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
c
c
+
c
c

2
2
y
u
y
u
v
x
u
u
c
c
=
c
c
+
c
c

Non-dimensional BL Equations (1)

Can non-dimensionalize equation choosing:
x*=x/L, u*=u/U, y*=y/o, v*=v/V (to be
determined)
From mass conservation:
The non-dimensional terms du*/dx* and
dv*/dy* will be of the same order of
magnitude if V=Uo/L
Thus, v*=vL/Uo
2
2
y
u
y
u
v
x
u
u
c
c
=
c
c
+
c
c

0 =
c
c
+
c
c
y
v
x
u
0
*
*
*
*
=
c
c
+
c
c
y
v V
x
u
L
U
o
0
*
*
*
*
=
c
c
+
c
c
y
v
x
u
Non-dimensional BL Equations (2)

Becomes:

Boundary layer thickness o depends on LRe
-1/2

2
2
y
u
y
u
v
x
u
u
c
c
=
c
c
+
c
c

2
*
* 2
2 *
*
* 2
*
*
*
2
y
u U
y
u
v
L
U
x
u
u
L
U
c
c
=
c
c
+
c
c
o
o
o
2
*
* 2
2
2
*
* 2
2 *
*
*
*
*
*
y
u L
UL
y
u
U
L
y
u
v
x
u
u
c
c
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
c
c
=
c
c
+
c
c
o
2
*
* 2
2
1
*
*
*
*
*
*
Re
y
u L
y
u
v
x
u
u
c
c
|
.
|
\
|
=
c
c
+
c
c

o
Boundary Layer Thickness

Numerical solutions show C=5 for laminar flow

For Re>10
5
the BL will become turbulent
2 / 1 2 / 1
~ Re L
UL
CL CL
o = =

2 / 1
Re 5

= L o

Displacement Thickness (1)
Because the velocity slows at the plate, there is less
mass flux through the boundary layer than in the
outer flow
The flow appears to be displaced by a distance o*
}
=
0
*
udy U U o
Displacement Thickness (2)
If the shape of the boundary layer profile is
known, the displacement thickness can be
found
From numerical solutions

Displacement thickness is equivalent to
boundary layer thickness but is not arbitrarily
defined (99%U)
}
=
0
*
1 dy
U
u
o
o o 34 . 0 Re 721 . 1
2 / 1 *
= =

L
Drag on Plate
Shear stress at the plate can also be calculated
from velocity profile (du/dy at wall)
From numerical solutions:

Friction coefficient defined as:

L U
U
L
U
w
t
2 2 / 3
332 . 0 332 . 0 = =
2 / 1
2
Re 664 . 0
2
1

= =
U
c
w
f
t
Drag/Friction Coefficient
For pipes

Where ApA is the drag in the pipe
For a flat plate drag is the integral of shear
stress across the plate:

|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
= A
D
L
U f p
2
2
1
Re
64
2
1
2
= =
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
A
f
D
L
U
p
( ) ( )
2 / 1
0
2 2
Re 328 . 1
2
1
2
1

= = =
}
L
w
D
bL U
bdl
bL U
Drag
C

Inviscid Flow Over a Sphere (1)
Flow stagnates on
front of
sphere/highest
pressure
Flow is highest
velocity/lowest
pressure at top of
cylinder
Flow achieves highest
pressure again at rear
stagnation point
Inviscid Flow Over a Sphere (2)
What is the net
force on cylinder?
No viscous stress
Pressure
distribution is
symmetric
right/left and
top/bottom
Inviscid flow has
no net force
(drag/lift)
Viscid Flow Over Cylinder (1)
Fluid near wall subject to viscous drag
Higher pressure from outer flow imposed
across boundary layer
Viscid Flow Over Cylinder (2)
Flow from A-C high-medium pressure
(favorable pressure gradient)
Flow from C-F medium to high pressure
(adverse pressure gradient)
Boundary layer separates
Flow Separation
Separated flows are no
longer thin boundary
layers
Flow recirculates behind
separation point,
pressure is less than
would be achieved by
inviscid flow
Net drag caused by this
separated flow
Effect of Re
At low Re, viscosity is
important everywhere
(wide boundary layer)
Flow happens to resemble
inviscid flow

At moderate Re, the flow
is laminar but effects of
viscosity are apparent in
separation

At high Re, the flow is
turbulent
Drag Coefficient
The asymmetric pressure distribution caused
by separation leads to drag
A drag coefficient is defined as

C
D
depends on Re, geometry, surface
roughness, etc because flow separation
changes with these parameters
A U
Drag
C
D
2
2
1
=
Example Drag Coefficients

Drag Coefficient
The asymmetric pressure distribution caused
by separation leads to drag
A drag coefficient is defined as

C
D
depends on Re, geometry, surface
roughness, etc because flow separation
changes with these parameters
A U
Drag
C
D
2
2
1
=
Example Drag Coefficients

More Examples

C
D
versus Re

Impact of Aerodynamic Designs
Wind tunnel testing has enabled more
aerodynamic (lower C
D
auto designs)
Lift
All objects have
drag, but lift
requires an
asymmetric
geometry or flow
Flow over an
airfoil can be
asymmetric either
through the wing
shape or by tilting
the wing relative
to the incoming
flow (angle of
attack)
A U
Lif t
C
L
2
2
1
=
Airfoils (1)

Airfoils (2)
Pressure
below airfoil
is higher that
pressure above
airfoil
Edge of wing
generates
wing tip
vortex
Movie

Why are Golf Balls Dimpled? (1)
Reynolds number: (~30 m/s, D~0.05 m,
v=1.46e-5 m
2
/s)
Re=10
5
almost exactly at transition to
turbulent boundary layer
Dimples on golf balls can help trip boundary
layer and cause turbulence sooner
Why are Golf Balls Dimpled? (2)
Turbulent BL
separates later
causes lower drag
Two Major Sources of Drag
Separation this form of drag is due to large
pressure gradients across object (dominant
drag for blunt objects) lower for turbulent
BL
Surface friction this form of drag due to
boundary layer velocity gradients (dominant
for streamlined objects without separation)
higher for turbulent BL

Fluid Mechanics
Application of mass conservation and
momentum balance to solve for flow (velocity
and pressure)
Since many fluid flows are complicated and
cant be directly solved, simplified approaches
are usually used
ME 250 was a study of various tools/simple
analysis approaches to understand fluid flow
and its interactions with surfaces
Navier Stokes Equations
The most complete description of fluid flow is the
full NSE mass conservation, momentum balance
at all points in the flow for Newtonian fluids
( ) ( ) g V V p V V
t
V

+ V V + V + V = V +
c
c
2
x
g
z
w
y
v
x
u
x z
u
y
u
x
u
x
p
z
u
w
y
u
v
x
u
u
t
u
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
2
2
2
2
2
2
y
g
z
w
y
v
x
u
y z
v
y
v
x
v
y
p
z
v
w
y
v
v
x
v
u
t
v
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
2
2
2
2
2
2
z
g
z
w
y
v
x
u
z z
w
y
w
x
w
z
p
z
w
w
y
w
v
x
w
u
t
w
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
2
2
2
2
2
2
( ) ( ) ( )
0 =
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
z
w
y
v
x
u
t

( ) 0 = V +
c
c
V
t

Appendix A - CFD
For a general complicated flow, simple tools
cannot recover local velocity fields
CFD can solve NSE for complex flows
CFD should only be used when you NEED
local velocity information AND the flow
cannot be solved by a simpler approach

Chapter 6 Solve NSE Directly
Start with full NSE
Make reasonable assumptions and eliminate
terms
Solve simplified differential equations
Apply boundary conditions
Use this approach when you have a simple (1-
D) flow and NEED to know local velocity
profiles
Chapter 3, 6 Neglect Viscosity
For flows far from walls and at high Re, the
effects of viscosity are negligible
Potential and stream function solutions can be
added together (superposition)
Or velocity field is known (uniform)
Bernoullis equation gives pressure from
velocities
Use this approach when you NEED local
information AND the flow is inviscid
0
2
= V |
Chapter 2 Fluid Statics
If velocity is zero everywhere, NSE reduce to

Pressure field is directly related to gravity (or
acceleration of system)
Buoyancy is upward force on submerged
object due to density of fluid
Manometer analysis is common application of
fluid statics
Use this approach when V=0
g p

= V
Chapter 5 Integral Analysis (1)
Integral analysis applies to a control volume
for a system
Integral analysis provides NO information
about the flow inside the system

Reynolds transport theorem used to derive
relationships for system mass and momentum
balance
} }
+
c
c
=
cs cv
sys
dA n V b bd
t Dt
DB

Chapter 5 Integral Analysis (2)
Mass conservation

Momentum equation

Be careful with integration and signs
Use this approach when you need ONLY
information for control volume and you have
sufficient information at boundaries
0
= +
c
c
} }
cs cv
dA n V d
t

} }
+
c
c
=
cs cv
sys
dA n V V d V
t
F

Dimensional Analysis
Dimensional analysis is useful for finding how
different fluid problems are related to one
another
Useful for integral and differential analysis
Useful outside of fluid mechanics
Use this approach in general to understand
actual parameters affecting problem
Dimensional analysis does not provide specific
information only an understanding of
governing parameters
Losses, Friction, Drag (1)
Loss factors describe overall system behavior
like integral analysis this is not useful if you
NEED local information
Use loss, friction, drag factors to design pipe
systems, understand overall pressure losses
Pipe friction use Moody chart to determine f
f
D
L
V
p
=
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
A
2
2
1
Losses
Use loss tables to compute K for components

Use drag coefficient tables to compute C
D
for
objects

Use loss coefficients when you need ONLY
overall pressure drop for a system or drag
force
K
V
p
=
|
.
|
\
|
A
2
2
1
A U
F
C
Drag
D
2
2
1
=
Other Things to Know..
What IS viscosity? What effects does it have
on flow?
How does pressure affect flow?
How do fluids deform due to velocity?
How do pitot static tubes work?
What is the vena contract effect?

Turbulent Flow
At high Re, all flows become turbulent
Eddies (vortices) carry momentum in all
directions
Faster mixing of momentum, flatter velocity
profiles
Turbulent viscosity used as a model to
approximate effects of eddy mixing
You do not have sufficient background in
turbulent flows yet to calculate local velocity
fields (but can still use loss factor charts)
Exam Coverage (1)
Fluid Kinematics (10%)
Acceleration, dilitation, angular deformation,
vorticity
Fluid Statics (10%)
Manometers, pressure distribution on submerged
surfaces
Inviscid Flows (10%)
Bernoulli equation, stream functions
Exam Coverage (2)
Integral Analysis (25%)
Mass and momentum balance
Differential Anlaysis (25%)
Solve NSE directly
Loss Calculation (10%)
Use Moody chart, loss factors to compute pressure
drops
Non-dimensional Analysis (10%)
Buckingham Pi theorem

ME 3250 - Lectures

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ME 3250 - Lectures

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Viscosity (3) Newtonian Fluids

Additional Fluid Properties (2)

Variation of pressure in a fluid (2)

F=ma Along Streamline (5)

Rate change of property B for a system equals

Reynolds Transport Theorem

Linear Momentum Equations (1)

Integral Linear Momentum

Relative velocities used for

Couette Flow (2)

Pipe Flow (1)

Pipe Flow (2)

Pipe Flow (3)

Common Dimensionless Groups

Model Similarity (3)

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