CONSTRUCTION OF DC MACHINE

Armature Core or Stack The armature stack is made up thin magnetic steel laminations stamped from sheet steel with a blanking die. Slots are punched in the lamination with a slot die. Sometimes these two operations are done as one. The laminations are welded, riveted, bolted or bonded together.

 Armature Winding The armature winding is the winding, which fits in the armature slots and is eventually connected to the commutator. It either generates or receives the voltage depending on whether the unit is a generator or motor. The armature winding usually consists of copper wire, either round or rectangular and is insulated from the armature stack.

 Field Coils The field coils are those windings, which are located on the poles and set up the magnetic fields in the machine. They also usually consist of copper wire are insulated from the poles. The field coils may be either shunt windings (in parallel with the armature winding) or series windings (in series with the armature winding) or a combination of both.

 Yoke The yoke is a circular steel ring, which supports the field, poles mechanically and provides the necessary magnetic path between the pole. The yoke can be solid or laminated. In many DC machines, the yoke also serves as the frame.

Poles and pole shoe

IF POLE SHOE ENLARGES, LARGER INDUCED EMF

 Commutator The commutator is the mechanical rectifier, which changes the AC voltage of the rotating conductors to DC voltage. It consists of a number of segments normally equal to the number of slots. The segments or commutator bars are made of silver bearing copper and are separated from each other by mica insulation.

 Brushes and Brush Holders Brushes conduct the current from the commutator to the external circuit. There are many types of brushes. A brush holder is usually a metal box that is rectangular in shape. The brush holder has a spring that holds the brush in contact with the commutator. Each brush usually has a flexible copper shunt which extends to the lead wires. Often, the entire brush assembly is insulated from the frame and is made movable as a unit about the commutator to allow for adjustment.

 Interpoles Interpoles are similar to the main field poles and located on the yoke between the main field poles. They have windings in series with the armature winding. Interpoles have the function of reducing the armature reaction effect in the commutating zone. They eliminate the need to shift the brush assembly.

 Frame, End Bells, Shaft, and Bearings The frame and end bells are usually steel, aluminum or magnesium castings used to enclose and support the basic machine parts. The armature is mounted on a steel shaft, which is supported between two bearings. The bearings are either sleeve, ball or roller type. They are normally lubricated by grease or oil.

 Back End, Front End The load end of the motor is the Back End. The opposite load end, most often the commutator end, is the Front End of the motor.

 Armature Windings

WINDING TERMINOLOGIES
LAP WINDING

LAP WINDING CONNECTED TO COMMUTATOR BARS LAP WINDING

 When the end connections of the coils are brought to adjacent bars a lap or parallel winding is formed. In this type winding, there are as many paths through the armature as there are poles on the machine. Therefore, to obtain full use of this type winding, there must be as many brushes as there are poles, alternate brushes being positive and negative. The outermost connecting lines represent the end connections on the back of the armature and the inner connecting lines represent the connections on the front or commutator end of the armature. The lap winding is best suited for low voltage, high current ratings because of the number of parallel paths.

LAP WINDING IN CIRCULAR FORM

Lap Winding,

Wave Winding

WAVE WINDING

 The WAVE winding is best suited for high voltage, low current ratings because of the number of parallel paths.

E.M.F Equation Let = flux/pole in weber Z = total number of armature conductors = No.of slots x No.of conductors/slot P = No.of generator poles A = No.of parallel paths in armature N = armature rotation in revolutions per minute (r.p.m) E = e.m.f induced in any parallel path in armature Generated e.m.f Eg = e.m.f generated in any one of the parallel paths i.e E. Average e.m.f generated /conductor = d/dt volt (n=1) Now, flux cut/conductor in one revolution d = P Wb No.of revolutions/second = N/60 Time for one revolution, dt = 60/N second Hence, according to Faraday's Laws of Electromagnetic Induction,

E.M.F generated/conductor is =e = Rate of cutting the flux For a simplex wave-wound generator No.of parallel paths = 2=A No.of conductors (in series) in one path = Z/2 E.M.F. generated/path is

For a simplex lap-wound generator No.of parallel paths = P=A No.of conductors (in series) in one path = Z/P E.M.F.generated/path

In general generated e.m.f

where A = 2 - for simplex wave-winding = P - for simplex lap-winding

A1-A2 ENDS OF ARMATURE F1-F2 FIELD WINDING

SYMBOL REPRESENTATION OF DC GENERATOR.

TYPES OF DC GENERATORS

Flemings Right hand rule

SEPARATELY EXCITED GENERATOR

The field wdg is supplied from external, separate dc supply (i.e.) excitation of field wdg is separate, then the generator is called separately excited generator.

SEPARATELY EXCITED GENERATOR

IF
F1 A1 Ia=IL

DC SUPPLY A2 F2

Ia = IL
Emf e is not equal to Vt. IaRa is minimum.

Some voltage drop at the contacts of the brush. So voltage equation is E=Vt+IaRa+Vbrush
E=(PNZ)/(60A) Vbrush is negligible.

SELF EXCITED GENERATOR

1. Though Generator does not work, without any current through field wdg, possess some magnetic flux. This is residual flux and property is residual magnetism. 2. Voltage building process small emf drives small ct through field wdg, further flux produces increasing field ct and flux. The process is cumulative and continues till generator develops rated voltage across armature. 3. Three types Shunt , series and compound Generator.

SHUNT GENERATOR
Ish

F1

Ia A1

Vt

F2

A2

VOLTAGE AND CURRENT RELATIONS

Ia=IL+Ish Ish=Vt /Rsh Induced emf still supply IaRa voltage drop and brush contact drop. E=Vt+IaRa+Vbrush E=(PNZ)/(60A)

Series Generator
S1 A1 Ia Vt A2 S2

VOLTAGE AND CURRENT RELATIONS

Ia=Ise=IL E=Vt+IaRa+IaRse+Vbrush E=Vt + Ia(Ra+Rse)+Vbrush E=(PNZ)/(60A)

Compound Generator
Long shunt Compound Generator Ia=Ise Ia=Ish+IL Ish=Vt/Rsh Rsh=Resistance of shunt field wdg E=Vt+IaRa+IaRse+Vbrush Rse=Resistance of series field wdg.

Long Shunt Compound Gr

Ise S1 Ish F1 A1 S2

F2 A2

Short shunt Compound Gr

S1 A1 S2

F1

F2

A2 Ia

Ia=Ise+Ish Ia=IL+Ish Ise=IL Drop across shunt field wdg is drop across armature only not on Vt. The drop is E-IaRa Ish=(E-IaRa)/Rsh E=Vt+IaRa+IseRse+Vbrush Ise=IL E=Vt+IaRa+ILRse+Vbrush E=Vt+IaRa+ILRse E-IaRa=Vt+ILRse Ish=(Vt+ILRse)/Rsh

Cumulative and Differential Compound Generator

se sh

Differential compound Generator

T=sh+se sh=Flux produced by shunt winding se = Flux produced by series , field winding Depending on the direction of the winding of the poles, two fluxes produced by shunt and series field may help or oppose each other. If the two fluxes help each other, then it is cumulative compound generator. If two fluxes oppose each other, then it is differential compound generator. T=sh-se

Applications of DC generator
1. Shunt generators are extensively used for general light and power supply, and for charging of batteries, since, in conjunction with a field regulator, a constant terminal voltage can be maintained at all loads. 2. Series generators are mainly used as animation boosters in dc transmission system, in order to compensate for the drop of voltage due to the resistance of transmission conductors. 3. compounded generators find use in dc transmission, since it is possible to keep on a constant voltage at the load end, by generating a larger voltage so as to overcome the line drop. Cumulative compound generator- used for domestic lighting purposes and to transmit energy over long distances. differential compound generator are very rare and used for special application like electric arc welding.

DC Motor
A DC motor is a device which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. D.C. motors are motors that run on Direct Current from a battery or D.C. power supply. Direct Current is the term used to describe electricity at a constant voltage.

 The principle of operation is when a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences mechanical force. Two fluxes are present. i) Flux produced by permanent magnet is called main flux ii) Flux produced by current carrying conductor

Principles of Operation

Force in DC Motor

Magnetic Field in DC Motor

Torque in DC Motor

Current Flow in DC Motor

 The magnitude of force experienced by conductor in a motor is given by Force, F = B l I newton Where B is the flux density due to flux produced by field winding in weber/m2. I is the current in amperes and l is the length of the coil in meter. The force, current and the magnetic field are all in different directions.

Flemings Left hand rule:

Back EMF in DC motor.

 In generating action, conductor cuts the magnetic flux, emf is induced in conductor. In DC motor, after motoring action, armature rotates and armature conductors cut the main flux. So this is generating action in motor after motoring action. Induced emf in rotating armature conductors according to Faradays law of electromagnetic induction. Induced emf in armature always act in opposite direction to supply voltage. This is Lenz law direction of induced emf is always so as to oppose the cause producing it.

 In DC motor, electrical i/p, supply voltage is cause for armature current and in motoring action, induced emf opposes supply voltage. Emf induced sets up the current through armature which is in opposite direction supply voltage is forcing through conductor. Emf always opposes supply voltage - back emf, Eb. The magnitude is determined by Eb= (PNZ)/(60A).

Symbol of Eb in DC mtotr

Voltage equation of DC motor

V=Eb+IaRa+Brush drop Ia=(V-Eb)/Ra

Significance of back emf

Due to back emf, DC motor is a regulating machine. Back emf N When there is load, motor slows down. So the speed of motor reduces, so Eb also reduces. The net voltage across armature (V-Eb) increases and motor draws more armature current. Due to increased armature current, force experienced by conductors and torque on armature increases. The increase in torque satisfy increase in load. When load of motor is decreased, speed of motor increases. So Eb increases. (V-Eb) cause to reduce, reducing Ia. The motor speed stops increasing when Ia is enough to produce less torque by new load. So back emf regulates flow of Ia and Ia meets load requirement. This is the significance of back emf.

Power Equation of DC motor

V=Eb+IaRa Multiplying by Ia on both sides, VIa=EbIa+Ia2Ra VIa=Net electrical power i/p to armature Ia2Ra=Power loss due to resistance of armature called armature copper loss. Difference between Via and Ia2Ra is Input Losses gives output of armature EbIa is equation of gross mech. Power developed. Power input to armature armature copper loss = Gross mech power developed in armature

Torque equation of DC motor

The turning or twisting force about an axis is called torque. T= F*R

The wheel rotating at a speed of N rpm, then angular speed is = (2N)/60 rad/sec. The work done in one revolution is W= F*Distance travelled in one revolution =F* 2R Joules P = Power developed = Work done/ Time (=F* 2R )/time for 1 rev.

=(F* 2R )/(60/N) =(F*R)*((2N)/60 ) P=T* watts T = Torque in Nm = Angular speed in rad/sec. Ta- gross torque by armature of motor. It is also called as armature torque. The gross mech. Power developed in armature is EbIa. The speed of motor is N rpm, then Power in armature = Armature torque * EbIa=Ta*((2N)/60 ) Eb in motor is, Eb = (PNZ)/(60A) (PNZ)/(60A) *Ia = Ta*((2N)/60 ) Ta= (1/2)Ia*(PZ)/A = 0.159 Ia*(PZ)/A Nm

Types of torque in Motor:

There is power loss due to friction, windage and iron losses. The torque which overcome these losses is called lost torque denoted as Tf. These losses are also called as stray losses. The torque at the shaft does useful work is called Load torque or shaft torque denoted as Tsh. Ta= Tf+Tsh Ta = armature torque Tsh<Ta Speed of motor is in N rpm Product of shaft torque Tsh and angular speed rad/sec is called power net output of motor. The maximum power a motor can deliver to the load is called output rating of motor. It is expressed in H.P. and is called H.P. rating of a motor. Net output of motor = Pout = Tsh* watts.

No Load condition of Motor

On no load, Tsh = 0 So motor can rotate at a speed N0 rpm on no load. The motor draws armature current Ia0. Ia0 = (V Eb0)/Ra Eb0 back emf on no load to speed N0 Ta Ia. Flux is present and Ia is present ; Ta0 exists on no load (armature torque) Ta = Tf+Tsh Tsh = 0 Ta0 = Tf Power developed (Eb0*Ia0) = Friction , windage and iron losses. The stray losses Eb0Ia0 is constant though the load on motor changes from 0 to full capacity of motor.