Professional Documents
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16-02-2012
Typical Soils
Black Colour Clay
Sandy Soil
Depth of Boreholes
Boring Spacing
More borings = better analysis Borings are expensive General Guide to spacing for borings:
Multi-story bldg. 50 to 100 ft. One story , earthen dams and borrow pits = 100 to 200 ft. Highway sub-grades 500 to 1000 ft
Site Investigation
Soil Properties
Index Properties:
- Void Ratio, (e)
- Density, () - Specific Gravity, (G) - Moisture Content, (w) - Grain Size, - Atterberg Limits (LL, PL, PI)
Engineering Properties:
- Strength (Shear Parameters, c & )
- Compressibility (cv & cc) - Permeability (k)
Loose Uniform Sand Dense Uniform Sand Loose Angular Grained Silty Sand Dense Angular Grained Silty Sand Stiff Clay Soft Clay Soft Organic Clay
Casagrande Apparatus
Consistency Index, CI = (LL NMC)/(LL-PL) CI = 0 ----- very soft clays CI = 0 to 0.50 ----- soft clay CI = 0.5 to 0.75 --- medium stiff to stiff CI > 0.75 ---- stiff to hard
Consistency Indices
Degree of shrinkage
Activity
Sensitivity Values
Water
Kerosene
Soil
Measuring Jars
Swell Pressure
The maximum force per unit area that needs to be placed over a swelling soil to prevent volume increase is the Swelling pressure.
Expansion
Expansion
0 Compression
0 Compression
log
Collapsible Soil
> 10-1
10-1 - 10-3
10-3 - 10-5 10-5 - 10-6
Clays
10-6 - 10-8
Soil Classification
Criteria: -- Grain Size -- Plasticity Characteristics of Soil As per IS Classification Total Groups of Soil are 18. -- Coarse Grained Soils : 8 Groups -- Fine Grained Soils : 9 Groups -- Peat : 1 Group
BOULDERS
COBBLES coarse G GRAVEL medium fine
> 300 mm
80 - 300 mm 20 - 60 mm 8 - 20 mm 4.75 - 8 mm
coarse
medium fine
4.75 - 2.0 mm
2 - 0.425 mm 0.425 - 0.075 mm
Fine Soils
Silt (M)
Clay (C) Colloidal Matter
0.075 0.002 mm
0.002 - 0.0002 mm < 0.0002 mm
GW
GP GM GC
SW
SP SM SC
LL > 50 High Compressible (H) LL = 35 to 50 ---Intermediate Compressible (I) LL < 35 --- Low Compressible (L)
Proctors Compaction
Light Compaction No. of Layers No. of Blows 3 25 Modified Compaction 5 25
30
45
4.89
Closer packing of particles Reduction in void ratio Soil settlement Increased contact stresses between particles Higher soil strength
Triaxial Test
Weight b Volumeofho le
b
1 w
G w
(g/cc)
d= dry unit weight of soil
(g/cc)
Advantages * Fast * Easy to redo * More tests (statistical reliability) Errors * Miscalibrated * Rocks in path * Surface prep required * Backscatter
CBR Test
Item Mould Capacity No. of layers No. of Blows Rammer Weight Height of fall Soil size
Class
Very Poor
Poor Fair Good Very Good
S1
S2 S3 S4 S5
2
34 56 79 10 15
SPT Corrections:
- Dilatancy Correction and - Over Burden Pressure Correction
Safe Bearing Capacity Values for Cohesionless Soils as per the National Building Code of India (1983)
Description Gravel, Sand and Gravel Coarse sand compact and dry Medium sand compact and dry Fine sand, silt Loose gravel and sand gravel mixture Loose coarse to medium sand Fine sand, loose and dry Safe Bearing Capacity (t/m2) 44 44 25 15 25 25 10
Safe Bearing Capacity Values for Cohesive Soils as per the National Building Code of India (1983)
Description Soft shale, hard or stiff clay Medium clay Safe Bearing Capacity (t/m2) 44 25
15
10 5 13-16
Safe Bearing Capacity Values for Rocks as per the National Building Code of India (1983)
Description Safe Bearing Capacity (t/m2)
324 162 88 44
Rocks (hard) without lamination and defects (eg. Granite, diorite) Laminated Rocks (eg. Sand stone, lime stone) Residual deposits of shattered and broken bed rock and hard shale Soft rock
Geophysical Methods
Mechanical Wave Measurements
Crosshole Tests (CHT) Downhole Tests (DHT) Spectral Analysis of Surface Waves Seismic Refraction Suspension Logging
Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) Electromagnetic Conductivity (EM) Surface Resistivity (SR) Magnetometer Surveys (MT)
Poissons Ratio (n) is a fundamental parameter that is difficult to measure and it is usually estimated in engineering calculations.
Mechanical Waves
Compression (P-) wave is fastest wave; easy to generate. Shear (S-) wave is second fastest wave. Is directional and polarized. Most fundamental wave to geotechnique. Rayleigh (R-) or surface wave is very close to S-wave velocity (90 to 94%). Hybrid P-S wave at ground surface boundary. Love (L-) wave: interface boundary effect
Oscilloscope
Crosshole Testing
ASTM D 4428
Pump
x
Slope Inclinometer
PVC-cased
G = Vs2
PVC-cased Borehole
Oscilloscope
Pump
Downhole Testing
Horizontal Plank with normal load
t
Test Depth Interval
x
z1
Hammer
z2
packer
G=
Vs2
Cased Borehole
Vs fs
u2 u1
qc
60o
Sounding
qt (MPa)
0 0 10 20 30 40
fs (kPa)
0
0
u2 (kPa)
300
0 0 1000 2000 3000
0 0
Vs (m/sec)
100 200 300 400
100
200
d = 35.7 mm
Vs
10
10
10
10
Depth (m)
15
15
15
15
fs u2
20
20
20
20
25
25
25
25
qt
30
30
30
30
35
35
35
35
What will be gained by changing electrode spacing? Depth of ER survey: i.e., greater spacing influences deeper
SPT
Stabilization Techniques
Sl. Technique No .
1. Mechanical Stabilization
Mechanism
Application
Blending missing fractions (eg. clay with sand and sand with clay) so as to produce a mass of maximum possible density with plasticity within limits.
Sands, moorum/gravel having missing fractions and clayey soils can be stabilized by this technique.
Sl. No .
2.
Technique
Mechanism
Application
Lime Stabilization
Lime in hydrated from reacts with the clay minerals in the soil to cause (i) immediate reduction in plasticity and increase in CBR because of cationic exchange, flocculation and agglomeration which may be reversible under certain conditions, and (ii) long term chemical reaction with the clay minerals to produce cementitious products which bind the soil for increased strength and stability.
Medium and heavy clays having a PI of at least 10 and containing at least 15% of materials finer than 425 micron are suitable. However, some soils though containing clay fractions may not produce the long-term chemical reaction because of the presence of organic matter (>2%), or soluble sulphate/carbonate (>0.2%), etc. For lime stabilization to be successful, it will be desirable to test the soil for lime reactivity. A soil whose 7day unconfined compression strength increases by at least 3 kg/cm2 with lime treatment can be considered lime reactive.
Sl. No. 3.
Technique
Mechanism
Application
Cement The hydrated products of cement Stabilization bind the soil particles, the strength developed depending on the concentration of cement and the intimacy with which the soil particles are mixed with cement. A high cement content of the order of 7-10% can produce a hard mass having a 7-day compressive strength of 20 kg/cm2 or more, and this usually goes by the term soilcement. However, a smaller proportion of 2-3% cement can improve the CBR value to more than 25, and the material goes by the term cement-modified soil, which can be advantageously used as sub-base/base for rural roads.
Generally, granular soils free of high concentration of organic matter not greater than 2%, or deleterious salts (sulphate and carbonate not greater than 0.2%) are suitable. A useful rule for soil selection is that the plasticity modulus (product of PI and fraction passing 425 micron sieve) should be less than 250 and that the uniformity coefficient should be greater than 5.
Sl. No. 4.
Technique
Mechanism
Application
Lime Flyash Lime chemically reacts with the Stabilization silica and alumina in flyash to form cementitious compounds which binds the soil. Bitumen Stabilization
Soils of medium plasticity (PI-5-20) and clayey soils not reactive to lime can be stabilized with lime and flyash. Clean graded sands can be stabilized by this technique.
5.
6.
Two-stage This generally applies to heavy clays. Stabilization The clay is treated with lime in the first stage to reduce plasticity and to facilitate pulverization. In the second Heavy clays stage, the resulting soil is stabilized with cement, bitumen, lime or limeflyash.
Thank You
72
1) Alam Singh, Soil Engineering in Theory and Practice Vol 1: Fundamentals & General Principles,
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8) Harry G. Poulos; Elastic Solutions for Soil and Rock Mechanics, John Wiley and Sons Inc. 9) Jai Krishna, and Chandrasekaran, A. R., and Brijesh Chandra, Elements of Earthquake Engineering. South Asian Publisher, New Delhi. 10) James K. Mitchell; Fundamentals of Soil Behavior. 11) Karl Terzaghi, Palph B. Peck, Gholamreza Mesri; Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice. 12) Katti, R. K., and Katti D.R. and Katti A. R., Behavior of Saturated Expansive Soil & Control Methods Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Ltd. New Delhi, Kolkata. 13) Katti, R. K., and Katti A.R. and Katti D. R., Influence of Gravity on Granular Soil Mechanics. Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Ltd. New Delhi, Kolkata. 14) Kaniraj R., Design Aids in Soil Mechanics and Foundations Engineering Tata McGraw Hill, New Delhi. 15) Kasmalkar B. J. Foundation Engineering. Pune Vidyarthi Griha Prakashan, Pune. 16) Kurian N. P. Modern Foundation Tata McGraw Hill, New Delhi. 17) Mittal, Satyendra, and Shukla J. P., Soil Testing for Engineering Khanna Publisher, Delhi. 18) Mandal J. N. and Divshikar D. G. A Guide to Geotextile Testing New Age International Publisher.
74
19) Murthy, V. N.S., Principles of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering CBS Publisher distributors Pvt. Ltd. Delhi.
20) Nayak N. V., Foundation Design Manual Dhanpat Rai & Sons., Delhi.
21) Negi L.S., Elementary Soil Mechanics Khanna Publisher, Delhi. 22) Nainan P. Kurian, Design of Foundation Systems Principles & Practice. Narosa Publishing House, New Delhi, Chennai, Mumbai, Kolkata.
23) Punamia B. C., Soil Mechanics and Foundations Standard Book House, Delhi.
24) Ramaiah, B. K. Chiknagappa L. S. Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Oxford & IBH, New Delhi. 25) Rao G. V. Geosynthetics an Introduction. Sai Master Geoenvironmental Service Pvt. Ltd.,
Hyderabad,
26) Ramamurthy T. N., Sitharam, T. G. Geotechnical Engineering S. Chand & Company Ltd. New Delhi. 27) Richard E. Goodman; Introduction of Rock Mechanics.
75
29) Sehghal S. B., A Text Book of Soil Mechanics Sehghal Ed. Cons. & Pub. Faridabad. 30) Shamsher Prakash, Earthquake Engineering McGraw Hill Int, New York.
31) Shamsher Prakash, Gopal Ranjan, and Swani Saran, Analysis & Design of Foundations and Retaining Structures Sarita Prakashan, Meerut. 32) Srinivasulu, P and Vidyanathan V.C. Handbook of Machine Foundations Tata McGraw Hill, New
Delhi.
33) Swami Saran, Analysis & Design Of Substructures Limit State Design, Vijau Primilami For Oxford And IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi. 34) Swami Saran, Soil Dynamics And Machine Foundations Galgotia Publications Pvt.. Ltd, New Delhi.
35) Som N. N. and Das S. C. Theory and Practice of Foundation Design Prentice Hall & Co. New
Delhi.
76
Author: Malcolm Steinberg, ISBN: 0070611785, Hardcover: 400 pages Publisher: McGraw-Hill.
2)
Expansive Soils
Author: John D. Nelson, ISBN: 0471181145, Paperback: 288 pages Publisher: Wiley-Interscience.
3)
Author: F. H. Chen, ISBN: 0444430369, Hardcover: 464 pages Publisher: Elsevier Science Pub Co.
77
Books (Geosynthetics)
Reinforced Soil Engineering: Advances in Research and Practice
Author: Hoe I. Ling, ISBN: 0824742540, Hardcover: 544 pages Publisher: CRC, August 1, 2003.
78
Soil Dynamics
Author: Shamsher Prakash ISBN: 0070506582 Hardcover: 426 pages Publisher: Mcgraw-Hill May 1981
79
80
Engineering.
2. Ruwan Rajapakse (2004); Geotechnical Engineering, Pile Design and Construction Guide,. 3. Charles Ng (2004); A Short Course in Soil Structure Engineering of deep foundation, excavation and Tunnels, Thomas Telford.
4. American Society of Civil Engineers; Standard Guidelines for the Design and Installation of Pile
Foundations. 5. L. C. Reese; Single piles and pile groups under lateral loading. 6. Clyde N. Baker; Drilled Piers and Caissons II, Amer Society of Civil Engineers.
7. Richard Jardine; ICP Design Methods for Driven Piles in Sand and Deep Foundation, Thomas
Telford. 8. M.J Tomlinson (1994); Pile Design and Construction Practice, Spon Press. 9. H. G Poulos; Pile Foundation Analysis and Design.
81
Geotechnical Handbooks
Geotechnical Engineering Handbook, Volumes 1-3 Author: Ulrich Smoltczyk, ISBN: 3433014523, Hardcover: 2175 pages, Publisher: John Wiley & Sons June 9, 2003
Foundation Engineering Handbook by Robert W. Day ,ISBN: 0071447695, ISBN: 1580012515 ,Paperback: 663 pages Publisher: Thomson Delmar Learning Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering Handbook Author: Robert W. Day, ISBN: 0071377824, Hardcover: 700 pages, Publisher: McGraw-Hill Professiona Foundation Engineering Handbook Author: Hans F Winterkorn, ISBN: 0442295642, Hardcover: 751 pages, Publisher:Van Nostrand Reinhold 1975
Geotechnical Engineers Portable Handbook Author: Robert W. Day ,ISBN: 0071351116 ,Paperback: 560 pages, Publisher:McGraw-Hill
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1. IS: 1080-1995 COP for Design and Construction of Shallow Foundations. 2. IS: 1498-1970 Classification and Identification. 3. IS: 1888-1982 Load Test. 4. IS: 1892-1979 COP For Subsurface Investigation of Foundation. 5. IS: 1904-1986 COP for Design and Construction of Foundation in Soils: General
Requirements.
6. IS: 2131-1981 SPT (Standard Penetration Test). 7. IS: 2132-1986 COP for Thin Walled Tube Sampling. 8. IS: 2720 Part-2-1973 Water Content. 9. IS: 2720 Part-3-Section1-1980 Specific Gravity Fine Grained Soils. 10. IS: 2720 Part-3-Section2-1980 Specific Gravity-Fine, Medium and Coarse Grained Soils.
13. IS: 2720 Part-7-1980 Water Content-Dry Density Relation Using Light Compaction. 14. IS: 2720 Part-8-1983 Water Content-Dry Density Relation Using Heavy Compaction. 15. IS: 2720 Part-9-1982 Dry Density-Moisture Content Relation by Constant Relation by Constant Weight of Soil Method. 16. IS: 2720 Part-10-1991 Unconfined Compressive Strength.
17. IS: 2720 Part-11-1993 Shear Strength Parameters (UU Without of Pore Water
Pressure Measurement). 18. IS: 2720 Part-12-1981 Shear Strength Parameters of Soils From Consolidated Undrained Test With Measurement of Pore Water Pressure. 19. IS: 2720 Part-13-1986 Direct Shear Test. 20. IS:2720 Part-14-1983 Determination of Density Index (Relative Density of Cohesionless Soils).
36. IS:2720 Part-38-1976 Compaction Mould Assembly for Light and Heavy
Compaction.
37. IS:2720 Part-39-Sec-1-1977 Direct Shear Test for Soils Containing Gravel: Laboratory Test. 38. IS:2720 Part-39-Sec-2-1979 Direct Shear Test for Soils Containing Gravel: In-situ Test. 39. IS:2720 Part-40-1977 Free Swell Index of Soils. 40. IS:2720 Part-41-1977 Swell Pressure of Soils.
41. IS: 2809-1972 Glossary of Terms And Symbols Relating to Soil Engineering.
42. IS:2810-1979 Glossary of Terms Relating to Soil Dynamics. 43. IS:2911 COP for Design and Construction of Pile Foundations. 44. IS:2950-1981 COP for Design and Construction of Raft Foundation. 45. IS:2974 COP for Design and Construction of Machine Foundations. 46. IS:4091-1979 COP for Design and Construction of Foundation for Transmission Line Tower and Poles.
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47. IS:4247 Part-III-1978 COP for Structural Design of Surface Hydel Power
Stations: Substructures.
48. IS:4332 Test for Soil Stabilized Soil. 49. IS:4332 Part V-1970 unconfined compressive strength of stabilized soils. 50. IS:4332 Part VI-1972 Flexural Strength of soil Cement Using Simple Beam with Third Point Loading. 51. IS:4434-1978 COP for in-situ vane shear test. 52. IS:4453-1980 Subsurface Exploration By Pits, Trenches, Drafts And Shafts.
53. IS:4464-1985 COP for Presentation of Drilling Information and Core Description
in Foundation. 54. IS:4651 COP For Planning and Design of Ports and Harbours. 55. IS:4968 Subsurface Sounding. 56. IS:4988 Glossary of Terms and Classification of Earth Moving Machinery. 57. IS:5249-1992 Test for the Determination of Dynamic Properties of Soils. 58. IS:5313-1980 Guide for Core Drilling Observations.
88
59. IS:5510-1969 Guide for Soil Surveys for River Valley Projects. 60. IS:5529 COP for In-Situ Permeability Test. 61. IS:6066-1994 Pressure Grouting of Rock Foundation in River Valley Projects. 62. IS:6403-1981 COP for Determination of Bearing Capacity of Shallow Foundation.
72. IS:7422 Symbols And Abbreviation For Use in Geological Maps, Sections and
Subsurface.
73. IS:7746-1991 COP for In-Situ Shear Test. 74. IS:8009 COP For Calculation of Settlement of Foundation Subjected to Symmetrical Vertical Loads. 75. IS:8009 Part I-1976 Shallow Foundations. 76. IS:8009 Part I-1976 Deep Foundation. 77. IS:8763-1978 Undisturbed Sampling of Sands and Sandy Soils.
84. IS:9259-1979 Liquid Limit Apparatus. 81. IS:9456-1980 COP for Design and Construction of Conical and Hyperbolic Paraboloidal
94.
95.
96.
97.
IS:10379-1982 COP for Field Control of Moisture and Compaction of Soils for Embankment and Subgrade.
98. 99.
IS:10442-1983 Earth Augers. IS:10589-1983 Equipment for Determination of Subsurface Sounding of Soils.
103. IS:11089-1984 COP for Design and Construction of Ring Foundation. 104. IS: 11208-1987 Method of Measurement of Earth Pressure by Hydraulic Pressure Cell.
105.
106. IS:11315 part II-1985 Core Recovery and Rock Quality. 107. IS:11594-1985 Specification for Thin Walled Sampling Tubes and Sampler Heads. 108. IS:11550-1985 COP for Field Instrumentation of Swelling Pressure in Expansive Soil. 109. IS:11593-1985 Specification for Shear Box (Large) for Soils. 110. IS:12175-1987 specification for rapid moisture meter for rapid determination of water content for soil. 111. IS:11229-1985 Shear Box For Testing of Soils. 112. IS: 12287-1988 Specification for Consolidometer for Determination consolidation Properties.
113.
Soils
114.
93
1. Foundation and earth structures 2. Download naval design manual 3. Soil dynamics and special design aspects
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Electronic Journals
Electronic Journal of Geotechnical Engineering. Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering Research Institute Reports. The earthquake engineering research institute is a national, nonprofit, technical society of engineers, geoscientists, architects, planners, public officials, and social scientists. Numerical and Analytical Methods in Geomechanics Journal. International Journal for Numerical and Analytical Methods in Geomechanics. Electronic Journal of Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering. Electronics Journals: Choose Earth Sciences.
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Geotechnical Journals
1. Computers and Geotechnics Journal 2. Canadian Geotechnical Journal 3. Geotechnical and Geological Engineering Journal. 4. Geotechnical Engineering Journal 5. ASCE Journal of Geotechnical & Geoenvoronmental engineering
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12.Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London. 13.Journal of the Society of Hungarian Architects and Engineers. 14.Journal of the Japanese Society of Civil Engineers. 15.Soil and Foundations, Japan. 16.Journal of the Institute of Civil Engineers, London. 17.Journal of the Boston Society of Civil Engineers. 18.Geotechnical Testing Journal, ASTM Philadelphia. 19.Geotechnical Institute of Civil Engineers, London, England. 20.International Journal of Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics.. 21.Indian Geotechnical Journal, India. 22.Australian Geomechanics, Australia.
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12. American Society of Civil Engineers GEO Institute. 13. Geological Society. 14. International Tunneling Association. 15. Forensic Engineering Technical Group. 16. Canadian Geotechnical Society. 17. Geological Index. 18. The World Commission on Dams. 19. American Council of Engineering Companies of Indiana. 20. EFFC- European Federation of Foundation Contractors. 21. International Society of Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering. 22. Swedish Geotechnical Institute. 23. International Society for Soil Mechanics And Foundation Engineering. 24. United States Universities Council on Geotechnical Engineering Research VELACS Project. 25. The Institute for Geotechnology. 26. National Geophysical Data Center (NGDC). 27. Rapid Excavation and Tunneling Conference (RETC).
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