SIGNAL REPRESENTATION &

ANALYSIS AND
DIGITAL COMMUNICATION
CREDITS

REFERENCES
Signals & Systems (2
nd
Edition)
Alan V Oppenheim, Allan S Willsky with S Hamid Nawab.
Communication Systems (4
th
edition)
Simon Haykin.
Electronic Communication Systems (3
rd
Edition)
George Kennedy
Modern Digital & Analog Comn Systems
BP Lathi
Principals of Digital & Analog Communications
Jerry D Gibson
SIGNAL REPRESENTATION &
ANALYSIS
PHASE I:
INTRODUCTION
Used in wide variety of fields:
Comn.
Acoustics.
Speech & video processing.
Two important components:
Signal.
System.
Application:
Characterization of a given cct.
Design of cct for a particular application.
ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK
Language to describe signals & systems.
Set of tools for analyzing signals & systems

SIGNALS DESCRIPTION
DEFINITION OF SIGNAL
Signal are phenomenon in which the info is
contained in the pattern of variation of
some form.
Signals are represented mathematically as
a function of one or more independent
variables.
TYPES OF SIGNAL
Continuous Time Signal. Independent
variable is continuous.
Discrete Time Signals. Defined at Discrete
times only.
10
x(t)
x[n]
0 t
0
1
2 3 4 5 6
7
x[0]
x[1]
CONTINUOUS TIME SIGNAL
n
DISCRETE TIME SIGNAL
SIGNAL ENERGY & POWER
Signal energy & power represents size of the
signal
Used to compare different signals.
SIGNAL ENERGY & POWER
Continuous signal
Energy measured over [t t t]

Avg Power

Discrete signal
Energy measured over [n n n]

Avg Power
}
=
2
1
2
| ) ( |
t
t
x
dt t x E
}

=
2
1
2
1 2
| ) ( |
1
t
t
x
dt t x
t t
P

=
=
2
1
2
| ] [ |
n
n n
x
n x E

=
=
2
1
2
| ] [ |
1
n
n n
x
n x
N
P
) t
t (
2 1
n to n erval in
between s poin of No N =
SIG ENERGY & POWER (infinite duration)
Continuous signal
Energy [- t
]

Avg Power

Discrete signal
Energy [- n ]

Avg Power
} }


= = dt t x dt t x E
T
T T
x
2 2
| ) ( | | ) ( | lim
}

=
T
T T
x
dt t x
T
P
2
| ) ( |
2
1
lim


= =

= =
n
N
N n
N
x
n x n x E
2 2
| ] [ | | ] [ | lim
between pts of No N
n x
N
P
N
N n
N
x
=
+
=

=

(
| ] [ |
1 2
1
lim
2
) interval
2 1
n to n
MODIFICATION OF INDEPENDENT VARIABLE
Signals related by a modification of the
independent variable.
Reversal of signal (audio tape reversal).
Linear scale change of independent variable
(Variable speed audio tape).
Displaced or shifted signal (differnce in
propogation time).

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14
15
x(t)
0 t
x(t-to)
0 t
Time shifted continuous time signal
continuous time signal
16
x(t)
0 t
x(-t)
0 t
Reversed Continuous time signal
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Continuous time signal
17
x[n]
0 1
2 3 4 5 6
7
x[0]
x[1]
Reversed discrete time signal
x[-n]
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17
Discrete time signal
18
x(t)
0 t
x(2t)
0 t
Scale changed continuous time signal
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continuous time signal
ODD & EVEN SIGNAL
Even sig: Identical with its reflection about
the origin :
x(-t) = x(t) or x[-n] = x[n]

Odd sig:
Identical with its reflection about the origin with
a sign change.
Odd sig must necessarily be zero at t =0 or n =
0
x(-t) = -x(t) or x[-n] = -x[n]
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x(t)
0 t
Even continuous time signal
x(t)
0 t
Odd continuous time signal
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Any sig can be broken down into a sum of
two sig one of which is odd & one of which
is even:
Even part of x(t): Ev{x(t)} = [x(t) + x(-t)]
Odd part of x(t) : Od{x(t)} = [x(t) - x(-t)]
Even part is in fact even & odd part is odd.
x(t) is the sum of the two.
Analogous definitions hold for discrete
case.
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PERIODIC SIGNALS
There is a positive value of To for which:
x(t) = x(t + mTo)
x(t) is periodic with period To.
For x(t) = const; To is not const as x(t) periodic
for any value of To.
There is no smallest value of To as we have for
other periodic sig.
Signal x(t) that is not periodic is known as
aperiodic signal.
Periodic sig are defined analogously in discrete
time:
x[n] = x[n + mNo)
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x(t)
0 t
Periodic time signal
x(t)
0 t
Aperiodic time signal
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23
QUIZ
A sig x(t) will be represented as _______ after
time to.
Even signal must necessarily be zero at origin.
(T/F).
Odd sig is Identical with its reflection about the
origin.(T/F).
A square wave shown below will have
(a) Only even part (b) Only odd part
(c) Both even & odd parts (d) None of the
above


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-5/4 - -3/4 -/2 -/4 0 5/4 3/4 /2 /4
f(t)
A discrete signal can have all possible values.
(T/F).
Any signal can be broken down into an odd &
an even signal given by ________.
A periodic signal has a positive value of T for
which x(t) = ________.
A sig is a ___________.
A discrete sig is characterized by_________.
Draw a signal x(t) = A cos (w0t+) showing
its intersection with y axis
Its nearest intersections on x axis from the origin.
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BASIC CONTINUOUS TIME SIGNALS
Occur frequently in nature.
Serve as basic building blocks from which
we can construct many other signals.
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CONTINUOUS TIME COMPLEX
EXPONENTIAL SIGNALS
Takes the form:
C & a are in general complex no,
depending upon the values of which, the
complex exp can take several different
characteristics.
Real Exp Fn: C & a are real.
Represents many real life phenomenons
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at
Ce t x = ) (
x(t)
0 t
Continuous Time exponential signal
x(t)
0
t
C
C
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+ve a
-ve a
IMAGINARY EXPONENTIAL SIGNALS

Second imp case is when a is purely
imaginary
It is a periodic signal
Proof: For the sig to be periodic
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t j
e t x
e
= ) (
e
t
e
2
] 1 ) ( [( 0 = = = T or t x
) 1 (
) (
= = = =
+ T j t j T j t j T t j t j
e if e e e e e
e e e e e e
SINUSOIDAL SIGNAL
A sig closely related to the periodic
complex exponential

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) cos( ) ( | e + = t A t x
f
T
T t
t
e
e
t
2
2 2
= = =
x(t) = A cos(t + )
0
A cos
A
T = 2/
SOME IMP IDENTITIES
Eulers identity:




Fundamental period of a constant sig is
undefined, whereas its freq is zero.
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t j t e
t j
e e
e
sin cos + =
t j j t j j
e e
A
e e
A
t A
e | e |
| e

+ = +
2 2
) cos(
} { ) cos(
) ( | e
| e
+
9 = +
t j
e A t A
HARMONICALLY RELATED COMPLEX
EXP
Set of periodic exponentials with fundamental
freq that are all multiples of a single positive
freq .


For k = 0; is a const.
For non zero k values is periodic with
fundamental pd 2/|k|.
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,......... 2 , 1 , 0 , ) ( = = k e t
t k j
k
e
|
) (t
k
|
) (t
k
|
COMPLEX EXPONENTIAL
e
u
j r a e C C
J
+ = = ; | |
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t t j rt t j r j at
e e C e e C Ce
) ( ) ( u e e u + +
= =
) sin( ) cos( u e u e + + + = t e C j t e C
t r t r
)
2
cos( ) cos(
t
u e u e + + + = t e C j t e C
t r t r
) ( ) (
| | | |
u e e u + +
= =
t j t r t j r j
e e C e e C
Case I: r = 0
Case I: r > 0
Case I: r < 0
t r
e C | |
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Unit Step Function

u(t) =





Function is discontinuous at t = 0
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0, t<0
1, t>0
u(t)
1
0 t
UNIT IMPULSE FUNCTION
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t t o
}

=
t
d t u ) ( ) (
dt
t du
t
) (
) ( = o
) (t u
A
1
A
1
) (t
A
o
A
A
1
k
Approx unit step
Derivative of
) (t u
A
) (t u
A
Unit Impulse Scaled Impulse
QUIZ
For an exponential sig of the form ,
where C & a are both positive and real, the
signal will never intersect with the time
axis.(T/F)
Set of periodic exponentials with fundamental
freq that are all multiples of a single positive
freq is called______.
For a signal where a = r + j w draw
the waveforms for the case when r = 0, r < 0,
r > 0
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at
Ce t x = ) (
at
Ce t x = ) (
Draw the signal when C is complex with
both real and imaginary part whereas a is
purely imaginary indicate the amplitude &
phase of this sig.

Derive
from Euler's identity.


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t j j t j j
e e
A
e e
A
t A
e | e |
| e

+ = +
2 2
) cos(
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SYSTEMS
DEFINITION OF SYSTEM
Any process that results in the
transformation of the signal.
A system has an I/P & an O/P signal.
O/P sig is related to the I/P through sys
transformation.
Continuous time & Discrete time system.
Cascade, parallel, complex, & F/B
connection of sys to create new sys out of
existing ones.
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PROPERTIES OF SYSTEMS
These are basic properties of continuous &
discrete time systems.
These properties have both physical &
mathematical interpretation.

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SYSTEMS WITH & WITHOUT MEMORY
Memoryless sys: o/p for each value of
independent variable is dependent only on the
i/p at that time. (e.g. A pure resistance where
the instantaneous o/p voltage is a fn of
instantaneous i/p current y(t) = R x(t).

Systems with memory: o/p dependent on past
values of i/p(s) may be along with the present
i/p.(e.g. Capacitance where the voltage
developed across it is a fn of running integral of
current )
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}

=
t
d x
C
t y t t ) (
1
) (
INVERTIBILITY & INVERSE SYSTEMS
Distinct i/p leads to distinct o/p.

By observing sys o/p we can determine its i/p.

For every invertible system there is an inverse
system, which when cascaded to its invertible
system, gives an identity system. (e.g. invertible
system y[n] = x(k) has an inverse system
z [n] = y[n] y[n-1]
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CAUSALITY
o/p at any time depends only on values of i/p at
present time & in the past.
These are non anticipative systems.
Sys o/p does not anticipate future values of i/p.
If two o/p to sys are identical upto time to, their
o/ps must also be equal upto this time.
All memoryless systems are causal.
e.g. y[n]=x[n]-x[n+1] ; y(t) = x(t+1)
Non causal (averaging) system
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44

+
=

+
=
M
M k
k n x
M
n y ] [
1 2
1
] [
STABILITY
For a stable system, if the i/p is bounded, its
o/p will also be bounded.
The o/p cant diverge for a bounded i/p.

e.g. For the system if x[n]
is bounded to a value B then the o/p is also
bounded to a value B & the system is stable
whereas for a system y[n] = x(k) the o/p
becomes unbounded.
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+
=

+
=
M
M k
k n x
M
n y ] [
1 2
1
] [
TIME INVARIANCE
For a time-invariant system, a time shift in
the i/p signal causes a time shift in the o/p
signal.

If y[n] is the o/p of a sys for i/p x[n] then
y[n no] is the o/p for i/p x[n-no].

Eg y(t) = sin[x(t)] is time invariant sys
whereas y[n] = nx[n] is time variant sys.

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LINEARITY
A linear sys follows laws of superposition.

o/p sig is superposition (weighted sum) of the
responses of the system to indl i/p sigs.

A sys can be linear w/o being time invariant & it
can be time invariant w/o being linear.
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If y(t) is the resp to x(t) & y(t) is the response to
x(t) then
Response to x(t) + x(t) is y(t) + y(t) (additive property).
Response to ax(t) is ay(t) (scaling property).
Extending further if x(t), o=1,2,3.. are a set of i/p with
corresponding o/p y(t), o=1,2,3.. Then response to
x(t)=ax(t)= ax(t) + ax(t) + ax (t) + is
y(t)=ay(t)= ay(t) + ay(t) + ay(t) +....(Superposition
property).
Zero i/p yields zero o/p.
INCREMENTALLY LINEAR SYSTEMS
Responds linearly to the changes in i/p.
Difference in the responses to any two i/ps
to an incrementally linear sys is linear.
Y[n] = 2x[n] + 3 is an ex of incrementally
linear sys such that y[n] - y[n] = 2{x[n] -
x[n]}
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Linear
System
+
x(t)
y(t)
y(t)
QUIZ - 3
A Unit step function is obtained by differentiating a unit
impulse function.(T/F)

Amplitude of a unit impulse function is unity.(T/F)

Sys is a process that transforms the input sig.(T/F)

A sys with memory must have some means of storing the
previous values of output.(T/F)

An inverse system transforms the output of its invertible
system to the original input. (T/F)
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All memoryless systems are non causal. (T/F)

Averaging systems are causal. (T/F)

A system is stable even if the i/p is
unbounded. (T/F)

For time-invariant system, time shift in the i/p sig causes
a time shift in the o/p signal.(T/F).

A sys can be linear w/o being time invariant & it can be
time invariant w/o being linear.(T/F)
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+
=

+
=
M
M k
k n x
M
n y ] [
1 2
1
] [
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SIGNALS & VECTORS
SIGNALS & VECTORS
Signals are exactly like vectors.

A vector can be represented as a sum of its
components in a variety of ways, depending
upon the choice of coordinate system.

A signal can also be represented as a sum
of its components in a variety of ways.
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COMPONENT OF A VECTOR
Vector has magnitude & direction.
Component of vector g along another vector x is
cx = |g|cos, where c is chosen to minimize the
length of error vector e = g - cx.
When g & x are perpendicular then g has a zero
component along x (c = 0);
Dot product: g.x = |g||x|cos , is the angle
between g & x. g.x = 0 implies g & x are
orthogonal.
Mag/length can be obtained from the relation
|x| = x.x
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Multiplying both sides of c|x|=|g| cos by |x| give
C|x| = |g||x| cos = g.x
and c = g.x/x.x = (1/|x|) g.x
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COMPONENT OF A SIGNAL
Concept of vector component &
orthgonality can be extended to signals.
Approximating a real sig g(t) in terms of
another sig x(t) over an interval t to t
g(t) cx(t); t t t
Error in approximation e(t) = g(t) cx(t).
For best approx, energy in error sig
must be minimized.
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}
=
2
2
) (
2
t
t
e
dt t e E
COMPONENT OF A SIGNAL
For the error to be min its differentiation wrt
c must be min i.e.
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0 =
dc
dE
e
| | 0 ) (
2
= dt t e
dc
d
| |
(

}
2
1
2
) ( ) (
t
t
dt t cx t g
dc
d
= 0
0 ) ( ) ( ) ( 2 ) (
2
1
2
1
2
1
2 2 2
=
(

+
(

} } }
t
t
t
t
t
t
dt t x c
dc
d
dt t x t g c
dc
d
dt t g
dc
d
} }
= +
2
1
2
1
0 ) ( 2 ) ( ) ( 2
2
t
t
t
t
dt t x c dt t x t g
COMPONENT OF A SIGNAL
This gives

Area under the product of the two signals
corresponds to the inner (scalar/dot
product).
Energy of a sig is the inner product of the
sig itself & corresponds to the vector length
squared.
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}
}
}
= =
2
1
2
1
2
1
) ( ) (
1
) (
) ( ) (
2
t
t
x
t
t
t
t
dt t x t g
E
dt t x
dt t x t g
c
SIGNAL VECTOR COMPARISON
A sig g(t) contains a component cx(t).
In vector terminology cx(t) is the projection
of g(t) on x(t).
If the component of sig g(t) of the form x(t)
is zero (i.e. c = 0) the sig g(t) & x(t) are
orthogonal over the interval [t to t].
Therefore we define the real sig g(t) & x(t)
to be orthogonal over the interval[t to t] if
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59
}
=
2
1
0 ) ( ) (
t
t
dt t x t g
EXAMPLE
For a square sig g(t) shown in fig find the
component in g(t) of the form sint. In other
words approx g(t) in terms of sint:
g(t) c sint; 0 t 2; so that the energy
of the error signal is min.
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60
0
-1
1
g(t)
t
2
LTI SYSTEMS
Representation of Discrete time sig in
terms of Impuses
Discrete time unit impulse response & the
convolution sum representation of LTI
system
Continuous time
REPRESENTATION OF COMPLEX SIG
Aim is to represent non std sigs in terms of std sigs.
Define a set of basic fns which can be combined in
some way to produce expression for less familiar w/f.
Properties of these basic set of fns are inferred from
analogy with 2/3 dimension vector spaces.
One imp property is that the fundamental building
blocks of these geometrical spaces are unit vectors in x,
y, z dir.
These unit vectors are orthogonal & indicate that our
basic func must also be orthogonal to for them to be
able to be combined to represent a complex sig.
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ORTHOGONALITY
Two real func are said to be orthogonal over the
interval (t, t) if their inner product is zero over this
interval.

Similarily two complex funcs are orthogonal over
the interval (t, t) if

Additionally fn f(t) & g(t) are orthonormal if their inner
product with themselves (with their complex
conjugate in case of complex sigs), is unity.
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}
=
1
0
0 ) ( ) (
t
t
dt t g t f
0 ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
2
1
2
1
* *
} }
= =
t
t
t
t
dt t g t f dt t g t f
EXAMPLES
With definition of orthogonality in place we
need to find some familiar func that posses
this property.
Ex.1: Set of func {1, t, t, t,.} in the
interval (t, t).
Ex.2: {cosnt, sinmt) over the interval
(t t 2/).
Ex. 3: { } over the interval
(t t 2/).
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64
t jm t jn
e e
0 0
&
e e
RECAP
Continuous & Discrete Signals.
Systems.
Signals & Vectors.
Orthogonal Signal.
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TODAY
Combining the functions in each orthogonal
set to represent sigs that occur in comn
sys.
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66
TRIGONOMETRIC FOURIER SERIES
Representation of a signal in terms of sine
and cosine functions.
We will limit the discussion to periodic
functions.
Any periodic function f(t) with period 2/
can be represented by infinite trigonometric
series given by
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} sin cos { ) (
0 0
1
0
t n b t n a a t f
n
n
n
e e + + =

=
PHYSICAL SIGNIFICANCE


Since the orig sig is periodic all components of the
Fourier series are also periodic.
The original non std signal gets broken down into
infinite no of std, well defined, sine & cosine terms.
More the number of components used, better will the
approximation to the original signal.
Freq of these component sig are harmonically
related.

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} sin cos { ) (
0 0
1
0
t n b t n a a t f
n
n
n
e e + + =

=
VALUES OF CONSTANTS
To find a, multiply both sides of eq by dt & integrate
over a pd t t t+ T to obtain:


For an, multiply both sides by coskt & integrate over
a pd which produces:


For bn, multiply both sides by sinkt & integrate over
a pd which produces:

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} sin cos { ) (
0 0
1
0
t n b t n a a t f
n
n
n
e e + + =

=
}
+
=
T t
t
dt t f
T
a
0
0
) (
1
0
}
+
=
T t
t
n
tdt n t f
T
a
0
0
0
cos ) (
2
e
}
+
=
T t
t
n
tdt n t f
T
b
0
0
0
sin ) (
2
e
EXAMPLE
Obtain Trigonometric Fourier series
representation of the signal given below.
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-5/4 - -3/4 -/2 -/4 0 5/4 3/4 /2 /4
f(t)
IMPORTANT OBSERVATIONS
Fourier Series expansion of a periodic
function is valid for all time, - < t < ,
even though the integration, when
computing the coefficients, is carried over
only one pd.
To obtain a Fourier series representation of
a non periodic function over a given finite
interval, the appch is to let the time interval
of interest be the period T & proceed as in
case of a periodic signal of period T.
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EXPONENTIAL (COMPLEX) FOURIER
SERIES
Complex Fourier Series can be obtained from
the trigonometric series using Eulers identity.
The exponential or complex form of a Fourier
series is given as:

Where


n = ,-2, -1, 0, 1, 2,
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72

=
t jn
n
e c t f
0
) (
e
}
+

=
T t
t
t jn
n
dt e t f
T
c
0
0
0
) (
1
e
EXAMPLE
Obtain Exponential Fourier series
representation of the signal given below
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-5/4 - -3/4 -/2 -/4 0 5/4 3/4 /2 /4
f(t)
IMPORTANT OBSERVATIONS
Trigonometric & Exponential Fourier series
are simply two different form of the same
series.
Two forms provide flexibility in signal
analysis, since there are situation where one
form may be preferred over the other.
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3/17/2014 75
SIMPLIFICATION OF FOURIER
COEFFICIENT EVALUATION
USING SIGNAL PROPERTIES
ODD & EVEN SIGNALS
Trigonometric Fourier series representation
of an even signal contains no sine term.
Trigonometric Fourier series representation
of an odd signal contains no const & cosine
term.
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76
LEAST SQUARE APPROXIMATION &
GENERALIZED FOURIER SERIES
For some appln an appx to a w/f may prove
adequate.
In such cases we use truncated trigonometric
Fourier Series

This truncated Fourier series expansion of fN(t) is the
only one out of all possible trigonometric sums hN(t),
of order N or less, that minimizes the integral
squared error (ISE) given by:
3/17/2014
78
} sin cos { ) (
0
1
0 0
t n b t n a a t f
n
N
n
n N
e e

=
+ + =
}
+
=
T t
t
N
t h t f ISE
0
0
)] ( ) ( [
APPROXIMATION ACCURACY
The error in the approximation is given by
the ISE by replacing hN(t) by fN(t)
3/17/2014
79
}
+
=
T t
t
N
dt t f t f ISE
0
0
2
)] ( ) ( [
]} [
2
{ ) (
2
1
2 2
0
2
0
0
n
T t
t
N
n
n
b a
T
Ta dt t f + + =
}

+
=
EXAMPLE
Obtain a truncated trigonometric series
approximation to f(t) such that the ISE in
the approx is less than 2% of the integral
squared value of f(t)
3/17/2014
80
1
0 -
f(t) = |sin t|
-2 -3 -4 3 2
t
GENERALIZED FOURIER SERIES

=
=
N
n n
t t f ) ( ) ( |
3/17/2014
81

=
=
=
}
+
n m for K
n m for
dt t t where
n
n
T t
t
n
0
) ( * ) (
0
0
| |
T t to t from t by sides both g multiplyin
m
+
0 0
*
int & ) ( |
}
+
=
T t
t
n
n
n
dt t t f
K
0
0
) ( ) (
1
*
|
TRUNCATED GENERALIZED
FOURIER SERIES
3/17/2014
82

=
=
N
N n
n n N
t t g ) ( ) ( |
Minimizes the integral squared error ISE given by
}
+
=
T t
t
N
dt t h t f ISE
0
0
2
| ) ( ) ( |
dt t h t f t h t f
N
T t
t
N
*
)] ( ) ( [ )] ( ) ( [
0
0
=
}
+
form the of h all for
N

=
=
N
N n
n n N
t p t h ) ( ) ( |
}

+
=
=
T t
t
N
N n
n n
K dt t f ISE
0
0
2 2
min
| | | ) ( |
PARSEVALS THEOREM

=
=
N
n n
t t f ) ( ) ( |
3/17/2014
83
dt t t f dt t f
T t
t
T t
t
n
n n
*
2
0
0
0
0
) ( ) ( | ) ( |
} }

+ +

= )
`

= |

=
+
=
n
T t
t
n n
dt t t f
0
0
) ( ) (
* *
|
}

=
T t
t
n
n
n
dt t t f
0
0
) ( ) (
* *
|
=

=
=
n
n n n
K
*

= n
n n
K
2
| |
=
0
lim
=

ISE
N
that shows This
COMPLETENESS & UNIQUENESS
Completeness: Completeness is
concerned with the fact that ISE0 as
N.
Uniqueness: Related to the
reqmt of having enough functions to
represent a given waveform.
If a set of orthogonal functions is complete
it is necessarily unique but not vice versa.
3/17/2014
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SPECTRAL CONTENT OF A PERIODIC
SIGNAL
Fourier Series separates a periodic time
function f(t) into its various components.
The set of complex Fourier coefficients cn
constitute the line spectrum of f(t).
Coeff Cn specifies the complex amp of the
freq component.
Coeff c0 is the amp of DC comp, c1is the
fundamental freq comp, &cn is the amp of
nth harmonic.
3/17/2014
85
SPECTRUM
Amplitude Spectrum


Phase Spectrum



3/17/2014
86
| | | | { }
2
1
2 2
) ( ) ( | |
n n n
c c c + 9 =
) (
) (
tan
1
n
n
n
c
c
c
9

= Z

n n n n
c c c c

Z = Z = & | | | |
EXAMPLE
Sketch the amplitude & phase spectra of the
following sq wave
3/17/2014
87
0 T/2 -T/2
A
EXAMPLE
Sketch the amplitude & phase spectra of the
following sq wave
3/17/2014
88
-5/4 - -3/4 -/2 -/4 0 5/4 3/4 /2 /4
f(t)
QUIZ-4
Complex functions f(t) & g(t) are orthonormal
if____.
For a complex function f(t)
=_________.
To obtain a Fourier series representation of a non
periodic function over a given finite interval, the
appch is _____________.
Trigonometric Fourier series representation of an
even signal contains no sine term.(T/F)
A truncated generalized Fourier series with N+1
component for closest approx is given
as_________.
Parsevals theorem shows that_____________.
3/17/2014
89
}
2
1
) ( ) (
*
t
t
dt t f t f
If a set of orthogonal functions is unique it is
necessarily complete but not vice versa.(T/F)
The amplitude and phase spectra of a
periodic signal are given by _______ &
______ resp.
The Fourier transform of func below will
have only sine components
3/17/2014
90
0 T/2 -T/2
A
FOURIER TRANSFORM
Fourier Series gives spectrum of periodic
signal & approx spectrum of non periodic
sig.
Uniqueness is lost in the process.
Need to develop a unique representation
for non periodic sig that is valid for all time
& therefore has a unique spectrum.
3/17/2014
91
EQUIVALENT FOURIER SERIES
EXPRESSIONS
T
n
n Let
n
t
e e
2
0
= =
3/17/2014
92
( )
0 0 0 0
1 ) ( e e e e e = = A = A n n n
n
(which is an incremental change in freq variable n)
n n
Tc c =
/
&

=
t jn
n
e c t f
0
) (
e
}
+

=
T t
t
t jn
n
dt e t f
T
c
0
0
0
) (
1
e
& becomes

=
A =
n
n
t j
n T
n
e c t f e
t
e /
2
1
) (
dt e t f c
t j
T
T
T n
n
e
) (
2 /
2 /
/
}

=
&
Where t = -T/2
FOURIER TRANSFORM PAIR
3/17/2014
93
Holding the shape of fT(t) in the interval T/2 to T/2 fixed,
if we take the limit of fT(t) as T, we obtain
dt e c t f t f
t j
n T
T
e
t
}

= =
/
2
1
) ( lim ) (
}

= dt e t f c where
t j
n
e
) (
/
e e e e d let have we where
n n
A &
As complex Fourier series coefficients defined the spectrum of the signal we define
}

= e e
t
e
d e F t f
t j
) (
2
1
) (
}

= dt e t f F
t je
e ) ( ) (
&
Correction dt = dw ve sign in exp of 2
nd
eqn
EXAMPLE
Find the Fourier Transform of the signal f(t)
specified by
3/17/2014
94
)
`

<
>
=

0 , 0
0 ,
) (
/
t f or
t f or Ve
t f
t t
DIRICHLET CONDITIONS
These are the sufficient but not necessary
conditions for a Fourier Transform to exist.
These conditions are as under:
Ist Condition: Fourier Transform must exist or
converge i.e. Which
can be further reduced to the condition
2
nd
Condition: f(t) must have finite number of
maxima & minima in any finite interval.
3
rd
Condition: f(t) must have finite number of
discontinuities in any finite interval.
3/17/2014
95
}

< = dt e t f F
t je
e ) ( ) (
}

< dt t f | ) ( |
EXAMPLE
Check convergence of the Fourier integral
for a signal f(t) specified by
3/17/2014
96
)
`

<
>
=

0 , 0
0 ,
) (
/
t f or
t f or Ve
t f
t t
EXAMPLE
Check convergence of the Fourier integral
for a signal f(t) specified by
3/17/2014
97
)
`

>
=
otherwise
t for
t u
, 0
0 , 1
) (
GENERALIZED FUNCTIONS
Fourier transform for functions that are not
absolutely integrable by allowing the transform to
contain impulses or Delta functions
Delta Function: Defined as
(t) = 0 for t 0
(t) = for t = 0
& the function is infinite at the origin in a very spl way that

Delta function is usually considered to be the
derivative of unit step fn, obtained by first taking a
ramp fn & then letting its slope go to infinity.

3/17/2014
98
( ) 1 t dt o

=
}
PROPERTIES OF DELTA FUNCTION
Sifting property: for
(t) continuous at t = t0
Lim may not be necessarily from - to ,
however t must lie betn the lim. In case t
is o/s the lim the integration becomes zero.
3/17/2014
99
0 0
( ) ( ) ( ) t t t dt t o | |

=
}
PROPERTIES OF DELTA FUNCTION
Derivative property:
for (t) continuous at t = 0 & notation
superscript (n) denotes the nth derivative
of the fn. The first derivative of the delta fn
(n=1) occurs somewhat frequently & &
hence is given the spl name doublet.
3/17/2014
100
0
( ) ( )
0
( ) ( ) ( 1) ( ) |
n n n
t t
t t t dt t o | |

=
}
PROPERTIES OF DELTA FUNCTION
Scaling property: for
(t) continuous at t = 0 & notation
Observe that
3/17/2014
101
1
( ) ( ) (0) at t dt
a
o | |

=
}
1
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) at t dt t t dt
a
o | o |


=
} }
EXAMPLE
Evaluate
(a)
(b)
(c)
3/17/2014
102
( )[ 1] t t dt o

+
}
3
( )
t
t e dt o

}
2
( 2)[ 3 2] t t t dt o

+
}
SINGULARITY FUNCTION
A singularity function is defined as function
that does not posses ordinary derivative of
all orders.
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103
FOURIER TRANSFORM & IMPULSE
FUNCTIONS
To find Fourier transform of functions that
are not absolutely integrable.
Singularity functions are considered limits
of ordinary functions.
Non rigorous but gives correct results more
easily & transparently
3/17/2014
104
DELTA FUNCTION
{ } 1 | ) ( ) (
0
= = =
=

}
t
t j t j
e dt e t t F
e e
o o
3/17/2014
105
Since this equation holds for all values of , the delta function
thus contain the same amt of all freq.
Using the fact that the Fourier transform is unique it is evident
that the inverse Fourier transform is (t).
Thus the Fourier Transform pair of Delta function is given as
(t)1
CONSTANT FUNCTION
{ } | | ) sin(
2
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
= =

}
e e e
e e
A
e e
j
A
e
j
A
dt Ae A F
j j t j t j
{ } 1 | ) ( ) (
0
= = =
=

}
t
t j t j
e dt e t t F
e e
o o
{ } ) ( ) 1 (
2
1
1
1
t d e F
t j
o e
t
e
= =
}

) ( 2 t d e
t j
to e
e
=
}

3/17/2014
106
The fn is an oscillating fn & does not converge.
Employing the unit impulse, we know that
As the Fourier Transform of a unit impulse is unique hence
{ } dt Ae A F
t j
}

=
e
{ } ) ( 2 e o t A A F =
Now once again coming back to the Fourier Transform of a fn A
SIGNUM or SIGN FUNTION
1, for t > 0
Sgn(t) = 0, for t = 0
-1, for t < 0
| | ) sgn( lim ) sgn(
| |
0
t e t
t a
a

=
{ } | | { } dt e t e t e F t F
t j t a
a
t a
a
e

}
= = ) sgn( lim ) sgn( lim ) sgn(
| |
0
| |
0
3/17/2014
107
The function is not absolutely integrable & the appch taken is to let
{ }
e e e j j a j a
t F
a
2 1 1
lim ) sgn(
0
=
)
`

+
+

=

UNIT STEP FUNCTION
A Unit Step Function may be written as
u(t) = + sgn(t)
Thus
{ } { }
e
e to
j
t F F t u F
1
) ( ) sgn(
2
1
2
1
) ( + = +
)
`

=
3/17/2014
108
EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION FOR (-
< t < )


Making change of variable y = -t & using the
result obtained for Constant Function
{ } ) ( 2
0
0
e e o t
e
=
t j
e F
{ }
} }

= = dt e dt e e e F
t j t j t j t j ) (
0 0 0
e e e e e
3/17/2014
109
SINE & COSINE FUNTIONS
| |
t j t j
e e t
0 0
2
1
cos
0
e e
e

+ =
{ } | | ) ( ) ( cos
0 0 0
e e o e e o t e + + = t F
{ } | | ) ( ) ( sin
0 0 0
e e o e e o t e + = j t F Similarily
3/17/2014
110
GENERAL PERIODIC TIME
FUNCTION
{ } { }


=

=
= =
)
`

=
n
n
n
t jn
n
n
t jn
n
n c e F c e c F t f F ) ( 2 ) (
0
0 0
e e o t
e e
3/17/2014
111
EXAMPLE
Find the Fourier transform of the periiodic
function shown below
3/17/2014
112
-5/4 - -3/4 -/2 -/4 0 5/4 3/4 /2 /4
f(t)
FOURIER TRANSFORM PROPERTIES
Symmetry Property:

If g(t)G() Then G(t)2g(- )

Proof: Use Fourier Transform equation &
change of variables
3/17/2014
113
}

= e e
t
e
d e G t g
t j
) (
2
1
) (
3/17/2014
114
}

= dx e x G t g
t jx
) ( ) ( 2t
x letting = e
e = t letting
}

= dx e x G g
x je
e t ) ( ) ( 2
t x letting =
}

= dt e t G g
t je
e t ) ( ) ( 2
) ( ) ( 2 )} ( { ) ( 2 t G g OR t G F g = e t e t
) ( ) ( e G t g
EXAMPLE
V, for -/2 t /2
g(t)= 0, otherwise

Has the Fourier Transform


Find the Fourier Transform of
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115
) 2 / (
) 2 / sin(
)} ( { ) (
et
et
t e = = V t g F G
) 2 / (
) 2 / sin(
) (
vt
vt
v V t G =
FOURIER TRANSFORM PROPERTIES
Linearity Property:

If g1(t)G1() & g2(t)G2()

Then for arbitrary constants a & b

ag1(t) + bg2(t) aG1() + bG2()

3/17/2014
116
FOURIER TRANSFORM PROPERTIES
Scaling Property:

If g(t)G() Then for a real const b
g(bt) (1/|b|) G(/b)

Proof: Use change of variables
3/17/2014
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3/17/2014
118
}

= dt e t g t g F
t je
) ( )} ( {
x at letting =
}

= dt e at g at g F
t je
) ( )} ( {
dx
a
dt
a
x
t
1
& = =
}

= dx e x g
a
at g F
x a j ) (
) (
1
)} ( {
e
) (
1
) ( ) (
1
)} ( { a G
a
at g OR a G
a
at g F e e =
EXAMPLE
V, for -/2 t /2
g(t)= 0, otherwise

Has the Fourier Transform

Find the Fourier Transform of

(i) g(2t)=
(ii) g(t/2) = -do-
3/17/2014
119
) 2 / (
) 2 / sin(
)} ( { ) (
et
et
t e = = V t g F G
V, for -/2 t /2
0, otherwise
FOURIER TRANSFORM
PROPERTIES
Time Shifting Property:

If g(t)G()
Then g(t - to) G()

Proof: Use change of variables
0
t j
e
e
3/17/2014
120
FOURIER TRANSFORM
PROPERTIES
Frequency Shifting Property:

If g(t)G()
Then g(t) G(- o)

Proof: Direct substitution into F() equation
0
t j
e
e
3/17/2014
121
EXAMPLE
Find the Fourier Transform of the resultant
signal when a signal So + mt is multiplied by
cos t
3/17/2014
122
FOURIER TRANSFORM
PROPERTIES
Time Differentiation Property:

If g(t)G()
Then

Proof: Direct differentiation of the inverse
Fourier Transform
3/17/2014
123
) ( ) ( e eG j t g
dt
d
=
FOURIER TRANSFORM
PROPERTIES
Time Integration Property:

If g(t)G()
Then


Proof: Requires Time Convolution Theorem
3/17/2014
124
) ( ) 0 ( ) (
1
) ( e o e
e
F F
j
d f
t
+
}

GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION OF
FOURIER TRANSFORM
Fourier Transform of a time signal specifies the
spectral contents of the signal.
Fourier transform, in general , is a complex
function & hence two different graphs are
necessary to present all of the info completely.
The amp & spectrum are defined by the relations
3/17/2014
125
| | | | { }
2
1
2 2
) ( ) ( | |
n n n
c c c + 9 =
) (
) (
tan
1
n
n
n
c
c
c
9

= Z

EXAMPLE
Find the Fourier Transform of the signal f(t)
specified by


Plot the amplitude & phase spectra of f(t)
3/17/2014
126
)
`

<
>
=

0 , 0
0 ,
) (
/
t f or
t f or Ve
t f
t t
PROPERTIES OF THE FOURIER
TRANSFORM FOR VARIOUS FORMS OF
f(t)
If f(t) is a: Then F() is a:
Real & even fn of
t.
Real & odd.
Imaginary & even.
Complex & even.
Complex & odd.
Real & even fn of
.
Imaginary & odd.
Imaginary & even.
Complex & even.
Complex & odd.
3/17/2014
127
EXAMPLE
Find the Fourier transform of the periodic
function shown below.
Sketch the real & imaginary part of the
Fourier transform.
Sketch the amplitude & phase spectra of f(t).
3/17/2014
128
-/2 0 t /2
f(t)
V
EXAMPLE
Find the Fourier transform of
f(t) =sint
f(t) =cost.
Sketch the real & imaginary part of the Fourier
transform.
Sketch the amplitude & phase spectra of f(t).
3/17/2014
129
f(t)
LINEAR SYSTEMS, CONVOLUTION,
AND FILTERING
3/17/2014
130
INTRODUCTION
It is important to be able to analyze &
specify cct & systems which op on, or
process, signals to achieve a desired
result.
Study of techniques for system
representation & analysis which are
necessary for the study of comn system.
3/17/2014
131
LINEAR SYSTEM
Given that y(t) & y(t) are the system o/p
responses to i/ps r(t) & r(t), respectively, a
system is said to be linear if the i/p signal
ar(t) + brt) produces the system o/p
response ay(t) + byt) , where a & b are
any arbitrary constants.
Also the differential eqn representing such
system will have all derivatives of the i/p &
o/p raised only to the first power & there are
no products of i/p & o/p or their derivatives
3/17/2014
132
TIME INVARIANT SYSTEM
Given that the o/p response of the system is
y(t) for an i/p r(t) applied at t =t, a system is
said to be time invariant if the o/p is y(t) = y(t-
t ) for an i/p signal r(t-t ) applied at time (t +t
).
Also none of the coefficients in the differential
eq governing such system are a fn of time i.e.
the coefficients are all const wrt time.
Shape of o/p response is same regardless of
when in time the the i/p is applied.
3/17/2014
133
MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF THE
SYSTEM
A mathematical model of a system predicts its o/p for
any given i/p.
There are four mathematical operations which are the
basic building block of mathematical models. These
models are:
Scalar Multiplication:
Differentiation:
Integration
Time Delay
Each of these operations describe a linear, Time
invariant system.
3/17/2014
134
) ( ) ( t r
dt
d
t y =
) ( ) ( t r t y o =
}
=
t
t
d r t y
0
) ( ) ( t t
) ( ) (
1
t t r t y =
IMPLICATION OF LINEARITY
For a Linear system, the o/p response due
to a sum of several i/ps is the sum of
responses due to each indl i/p.
For a Linear time invariant system the o/p
can contains only those freq which are
present at the i/p i.e. no new freq are
generated
3/17/2014
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LINEAR SYSTEM RESPONSE:
CONVOLUTION
Consider a general w/f defined for - < t < .
3/17/2014
136
0
t
General Excitation signal
r(t)
r(kt)

-
t
kt
Sig r(t) may be written as an infinite sum of
pulses of width t
3/17/2014
137
0
t
Approximation of r(t) by a sum of pulses of width t
r(t)
r(kt)

-
t
kt
Assuming the response of the system any
pulse has a shape denoted by h(.)
The o/p response to one pulse at time t =
kt will be given as
Linearity results in complete response as

For the sequence of pulses of width t to
exactly represent r(t) we must have t 0.

3/17/2014
138
y(t) =r(kt) h(t kt) t

=
A A A =
k
t t k t h t k r t y ) ( ) ( ) (

=
A
A A A =
k
t
t t k t h t k r t y ) ( ) ( lim ) (
0
}

= t t t d t h r t y ) ( ) ( ) (
INFERENCES

This is the Convolution Integral.
Derived by letting t0 hence the system
response h(.) is the response to an impulse
fn.
Hence if the i/p & impulse response of the
system is known the o/p of the sys can be
calculated using convolution operation
above.
Convolution op is denoted by y(t) = r(t) *
h(t).

3/17/2014
139
}

= t t t d t h r t y ) ( ) ( ) (
EXAMPLE
Impulse response of an RC cct is given by


Find the o/p response of this cct to the i/p
pulse


3/17/2014
140
)
`

<
>
=

0 , 0
0 , ) / 1 (
) (
/
t f or
t f or e RC
t h
RC t
)
`

s <
=
otherwise
t for
t r
, 0
2 0 , 1
) (
SOLUTION
( )
) (
1
0 , 0
0 , 1
) ( t =

<
>
=

t u e
RC t for
t for e RC
t h
RC t
RC t
3/17/2014
141
) 2 ( ) (
, 0
2 0 , 1
) ( =

s <
= t u t u
otherwise
t for
t r
) (
1
) (
) (
t t
t
=

t u e
RC
t h
RC t
) 2 ( ) ( ) ( = t t t u u r

3/17/2014
142
0
U(t-)
PROPERTIES OF CONVOLUTION
OPERATION
Commutative Law: r(t)*h(t) = h(t)*r(t)
Proof: Use change of variable
Distributive Law:
r(t)*[h1(t)+h2(t)]= r(t)*h1(t) + r(t)*h2(t)
Proof: Straightforward
Associative Law
r(t)*[h1(t)*h2(t)] = [r(t)*h1(t) ]*h2(t)
Proof: Will be considered later
3/17/2014
143
TIME CONVOLUTION THEOREM
Used to find sys o/p when convolution
integral is not very straightforward.
If r(t) R() & h(t) H()
then F{r(t) * h(t)} = R()H()
Proof:
3/17/2014
144
{ } { } dt e d t h r t h t r F
t je
t t t
} }

= - ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
{ } t t
t e
d d e h r
j
} }

+ ) (
) ( ) (
=
Interchange the order of integration & make the change of variable = t -
{ } t t
et e
d e d e h r
j j

} }
) ( ) (
) ( ) ( e e H R
INFERENCES
Time convolution theorem states that Fourier Transform of
convolution of two time fns is product of their Fourier
Transform.
If we know the impulse response of a sys h(t) & we want to
calculate the o/p response to a given i/p, we can compute
the Fourier transform of the i/p & f(t), form the prod of
these & then find the inverse transform. Often the last step
is not necessary since all we need to know is the freq
contents of the o/p.
For a cascade connection of two systems with impulse
responses h1(t) & h2(t) with i/p r(t), the Fourier Transform
of the o/p will be Y() = R()H1()H2() & y(t) =
F{Y()}
3/17/2014
145
FREQ CONVOLUTION THEOREM
If f(t) F() & g(t) G()
then F{f(t) g(t)} = (1/2)[F()*G()]
Proof: Assignment
3/17/2014
146
INFERENCES
Freq convolution theorem states that Fourier
Transform of prod of two time fns is fn of
convolution of their Fourier Transform.
Most of the comn sys req multiplication of two
time sigs. Freq convolution theorem is
extremely useful for analysis of such sys.
Associative Law of convolution can be proved
with the help of Freq convolution theorem.
3/17/2014
147
GRAPHICAL CONVOLUTION
Graphical convolution is performed by carrying
out following op:
Consider the convolution of the two time fns

Replace t in h(t) by which is its reflection about = 0
axis. Result is then shifted by t secs.
Let t = in r(t).
Finally integrate this prod over all values of , which is
equivalent to calculating the area under the prod.
These op are repeated for all possible values of t to
produce the total convolution waveform
3/17/2014
148
}

= t t t d t h r t y ) ( ) ( ) (
EXAMPLE
Find the convolution of the following two fns.
3/17/2014
149
3
0
t
1
f1()
2
0 t 1
f2(t)
0.5 2
SOLUTION
Step I
3/17/2014
150
3
0 t
1
f1()
f2(-)
-0.5 -2
SOLUTION
Step II
3/17/2014
151
3
0 t
1
f1()
f2(t-)
SOLUTION
Step III
3/17/2014
152
3
0 t
1
f1()
f2(t-) f2(t-)
SOLUTION
Step III
3/17/2014
153
3
0 t
1
f1()
f2(t-) f2(t-)
SOLUTION
Step IV
3/17/2014
154
3
0 t
1
f1()
f2(t-) f2(t-)
INFERENCES
There are sit when graphical appch is easier than
an analytical appch.
Generally a combination of both is used.
Graphical appch is first used to find the rg of t
over which convolution gives non zero values & to
get an idea about the shape of the resulting w/f.
Analyltical convolution is then performed precisely
using the limits deduced using graphical
convolution.
3/17/2014
155
IDEAL FILTERS
Filters are ccts that exhibit freq selective behavior.
Every cct fits this description.
However for a specific appln, if all the freq of interest are
passed undistorted, the cct is not acting like a filter.
By distortionless txn we mean that the shape of the sig must
be preserved. The change in amp & to certain extent some
amt of delay is immaterial.
The distortionless txn of an i/p sig r(t) will give an o/p of the
form
This eqn is a combination of the scalar multiplication & time
delay op & describes a linear time invariant sys.
3/17/2014
156
) t - Ar(t y(t)
d
=
DISTORTIONLESS TXN
) t - Ar(t y(t)
d
=
3/17/2014
157
) ( ) ( ) ( property shifting time e AR Y
d
t je
e e

=
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( theorem n convolutio Time R H Y e e e =
' ' Function Transfer System the eqns two the Comparing
ion considerat under range freq the over Ae H
d
t je
e

= ) (
d h
t A H where e e u e = = ) ( & ) (
INTUITIVE EXPLANATION OF
DISTORTIONLESS TXN
For a distortionless system o/p sig is i/p sig
multiplied by A & delayed by time td.
From the sys tfr fn for this sys it is seen that

which indicates that higher freq comp have greater
phase lag.
This is because The o/p sig will have same comp
as i/p, with each comp mult by A & delayed by
td. i.e. if the i/p has comp cost o/p will have
cos(t-td)= cos(t-td) implying addl ph shift
prop to freq

3/17/2014
158
d h
t A H where e e u e = = ) ( & ) (
This can be explaned graphically






This varifies the fact that to achieve the same
time delay, higher freq sinusoids must undergo
proportionately higher phase shifts.
3/17/2014
159
/2
td
The time delay resulting from sig txn through
a sys is the ve of slope of sys ph resp i.e.

If the slope h is const is const all comp are
delayed by same time int. but if this slope is
not const td varies with freq & o/p will be
distorted.
Thus only having a flat amp spectrum
doesnt guarantee a distortionless txn. The
phase response has to be linear (const td)
for a sys to be distortionless.


3/17/2014
160
d h
t e e u = ) (
e
u
e
d
d
t
h
d
= ) (
FILTERS
Filters are usually characterized as Low pass,
High Pass, Band Pass or Band stop.
These terms refer to the shape of Amplitude
Spectrum of filters Impulse Response or
Transfer Function.
Using the result obtained for Distortionless txn, a
filter is defined by System Transfer Function
3/17/2014
161

s s
=

else everywhere
for Ae
H
d
t j
filter
, 0
,
) (
2 1
e e e
e
e
3/17/2014 162
LOW PASS FILTER
LOW PASS FILTER

Amplitude Spectrum:


Phase Spectrum:
3/17/2014
163

s
=

otherwise
for Ae
H
S
t j
LPF
d
, 0
| | ,
) (
e e
e
e
|H()|
A
s -s
Slope = -td
0
0
/_H()
IMPULSE RESPONSE OF AN
IDEAL LPF
Taking inverse Fourier Transform we get
3/17/2014
164
) (
) ( sin
) (
d
d S
LPF
t t
t t A
t h

=
t
e
td
As/
td-1/2fs td-1/2fs
EXAMPLE
f(t)=3 + sin3t + sin12t cos30t + 5cos47t +
sin85t + 2sin102t + cos220t + sin377t
Ideal LPF with A = 2, td = 0, s = 40
rad/sec.
3/17/2014
165
3/17/2014 166
BAND PASS FILTER
BAND PASS FILTER

Amplitude Spectrum:


Phase Spectrum:
3/17/2014
167

s s
=

otherwise
f or Ae
H
d
t j
filter
, 0
| | ,
) (
2 1
e e e
e
e
|H()|
A
-2
Slope = -td
0
0
/_H()
-1 -1
-2
SYSTEM TFR FN : BPF IN TERMS
OF LPF
System tfr fn of BPF can be said to be a
System tfr fn:


Shifted by amts

Thus
3/17/2014
168

s
=

otherwise
for Ae
H
d
t j
, 0
2
| | ,
) (
1 2
1
e e
e
e
e
(

2
2 1
e e
(

+
+
(

+
+ =
2 2
2 1
1
2 1
1
e e
e
e e
e H H H
BPF
IMPULSE RESPONSE OF AN
IDEAL BPF
Impulse Response of a BPF can be found by
obs that Sys Tfr Fn of a BPF is nothing but
the sys tfr fn of an LPF shifted by &
using freq shifting property of Fourier
Transform
This comes out to be
3/17/2014
169
(

2
2 1
e e
( )
( )
( )
(

|
.
|

\
|
+

|
.
|

\
|

=
d
d
d
BPF
t t
t t
t t
A
h
2
cos
2
sin
2
1 2
1 2
e e
e e
t
3/17/2014 170
HIGH PASS FILTER
HIGH PASS FILTER

Amplitude Spectrum:


Phase Spectrum:
3/17/2014
171

>
=

otherwise
for Ae
H
L
t j
filter
d
, 0
| | ,
) (
e e
e
e
|H()|
A
Slope = -td
0
0
/_H()
-L -L
SYSTEM TFR FN : HPF IN TERMS
OF LPF
System Tfr Fn of HPF can be written in
terms of Sys Tfr Fn of LPF as:



3/17/2014
172
) ( ) ( e e
e
LPF
t j
HPF
H Ae H
d
=

IMPULSE RESPONSE OF AN
IDEAL HPF
Impulse Response of a HPF will be
3/17/2014
173
{ } { } ) ( ) ( ) (
1 1
e e
e
LPF
t j
HPF HPF
H Ae F H F t h
d
= =

{ } { } ) (
1 1
e
e
LPF
t j
H F Ae F
d

=
3/17/2014 174
BAND STOP FILTER
BAND STOP FILTER

Amplitude Spectrum:


Phase Spectrum:
3/17/2014
175

>
=

otherwise
for Ae
H
L
t j
filter
d
, 0
| | ,
) (
e e
e
e
|H()|
A
Slope = -td
0
0
/_H()
-1 -2 2 1
SYSTEM TFR FN : BSF IN TERMS
OF BPF
System tfr fn of BSF can be said to be a
System tfr fn:
3/17/2014
176
) ( ) ( e e
e
BPF
t j
BSF
H Ae H
d
=

IMPULSE RESPONSE OF AN
IDEAL BPF
Impulse Response of a BSF can be found by
obs that Sys Tfr Fn of a BSF is nothing but
This comes out to be
3/17/2014
177
{ } { } ) ( ) ( ) (
1 1
e e
e
BPF
t j
BSF BSF
H Ae F H F t h
d
= =

{ } { } ) (
1 1
e
e
BPF
t j
H F Ae F
d

=
LIMITATIONS
Ideal filters are not practically realizable.
A unit impulse applied to an ideal filter at time
t=0 will give an o/p even for time t<0.
Thus filter has a non zero o/p before the
impulse excitation sig is applied making the
sys non-causal.
For a sys to be practically realizable it has to
be causal & must satisfy the cond of causality
i.e. h(t)=0 for t<0.
This is the causality reqmt in time domain
3/17/2014
178
PALEY WIENER CRITERIAN
In terms of freq domain concepts the sys
must satisfy Paley Wiener criterian to be
causal.
This criterian is given by the eqn


However before applying this criterian it is
necessory to est that
3/17/2014
179
}

<
+
e
e
e
d
H
2
1
) ( log
<
}

e e d H
2
) (
REQUIREMENTS OF A FILTER
A filter must satisfy three very stringent
reqmts:
Const gain in passband.
Linear phase response across the passband.
Perfect attn o/s the passband
It is not possible to realize a filter that exactly
acheives all of these characteristics.
Three diff types of filters are desighned each
of which provides a good approx to one of the
ideal LPF properties while compromising
somewhat on others.
3/17/2014
180
BUTTERWORTH FILTER
Approx the reqmt of const gain throughout the
passband.
Amplitude char of Low pass butterworth filter
is expressed as


It may be seen that butterworth filter provide
maximally flat amp response in the passband
but their attn o/s passband may not be
sufficient for many applns.
3/17/2014
181
| |
freq cutoff dB the is where H
C
n
C
3
) ( 1
1
) (
2 1
2
e
e e
e
+
=
sys the of order the called usually fn tfr sys the in poles of no the denotes n ,......., 3 , 2 , 1 =
BUTTERWOTH LPF AMP RESP
FOR >0

3/17/2014
182
Ideal (n=)
5
th
order(n=5)
3
rd
order (n=3)
1
st
order (n=1)
NOISE IN COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

* Noise is an undesirable disturbance, which is
uncorrelated with the desired signal. Distortions due to
nonlinearities of the system, even though undesirable ,
cannot be called noise.

* Noise may be defined as an extraneous form of energy
with random frequency and amplitude which tends to
interfere with reception of a signal from a distant Tx.

* A transmitting eqpt does not produce noise in general.
In fact, the signal level is raised to such a high magnitude
in the Tx that any noise existing in the transmitting
system can be easily ignored in comparison to the info
signals.
EFFECTS OF NOISE
Noise modifies the desired signal in an
unwanted manner resulting in:
Hiss in the loudspeaker output.
In TV Snow or confetti becomes superimposed
on the picture.
Cancellation of or production of unwanted
pulses in dig comn.

IMPACT
Affects sensitivity of the rxr.
Reduction in the Bandwidth of a system
TYPES OF NOISE

--EXTERNAL NOISE

--INTERNAL NOISE

* In general noise may be picked up by a signal during its txn. from a Tx
to a Rx. This type of noise is commonly termed as External noise.

* Alternatively noise may be produced within a receiving eqpt
while it receiving a signal and this type of noise is termed as internal noise.
EXTERNAL NOISE
ATMOSPHERIC NOISE

CAUSED BY LIGHTINING AND OTHER
NATURAL ELECTRIC DISTURBANCES

IN THE FORM OF RANDOM IMPULSES
HENCE SPREAD OVER THE ENTIRE
SPECTRUM USED FOR BROADCASTING.

FD STR INVERSELY PROP TO FREQ.

FREQUENCY RANGE : 1 MHz - 30 MHz
EXTERNAL NOISE
EXTRA TERRESTRIAL NOISE

SOLAR NOISE
BEING LARGE BODY AT A VERY HIGH TEMP, SUN
RADIATES NOISE OVER A VERY BROAD FREQUENCY
SPECTRUM
SOLAR CYCLES EVERY 11 YRS,PEAKS AFTER 100 YRS
FOR WHICH ELECTRICAL DISTURBANCES ERUPT, SUCH
AS CORONA FLARES AND SUNSPOTS.

COSMIC NOISE
RADIATION FROM OTHER STARS AND GALAXIES IN THE
SAME MANNER AS SUN

FREQUENCY RANGE : 8 MHz1.4 GHz
EXTERNAL NOISE
INDUSTRIAL NOISE

SOURCES ARE AUTOMOBILE, AIRCRAFT
IGNITION, ELECTRIC MOTORS ETC.

RECEIVED NOISE INCREASES AS THE
RECEIVER BANDWIDTH IS INCREASED

FREQUENCY RANGE : 1 MHz 600 MHz
Internal Noise
Internal noise is the electronic noise generated by the passive and active components
of communications equipment.
Shot Noise
Shot noise is the result of electron-hole recombination and minority carrier random
diffusion in semiconductor devices. The power spectral density of shot noise is
proportional to the current passing through the device and is given by

P
n
= 2. I
s
. q
where I
s
= saturation current (A)
q = electron charge (1.59 X 10
-19
C)

Thermal Noise
Thermal noise is the result of random motion of thermally agitated free-electrons
within a resistive component. Thermally agitated electrons within a resistor collide
with the molecules of that conductor, thus setting in motion a chain reaction with all
the other free electrons.

Maximum noise power output of a resistor is

P
n
= KT BW

where T = absolute noise temperature
K = Boltzmann's constant (1.38 X 10
-23
J-K)
BW = operating bandwidth (Hz)

Popcorn Noise
Popcorn noise originates in semiconductor and integrated circuit devices. It occurs
in bursts of several hundreds per second to very few pulses per minute, with a
pulse width similar to and amplitude much larger than that of thermal noise.
Flicker Noise
Flicker noise or excess noise is thought to be related to dc current flow through imperfect
conductors in semiconductor devices.
Quantum Noise
Quantum noise is encountered at optical frequencies. The quantum noise power spectral
density is expressed by
P
n
= hf
where
h = Planck's constant (6.63 X 1O
-36
J-s)
f = frequency (Hz)
SIGNAL-TO-NOISE RATIO (SNR)
The signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) expresses in decibels the difference between
baseband signal power and noise power at the input or output of a communications
receiver. This ratio is perhaps the most important criteria of establishing
performance for electronic equipment including communications receivers. The
SNR is expressed in dB by
Where SNR = signal-to-noise ratio (dB)
P
s
= signal power (W)
P
n
= noise power (W)
NOISE FIGURE (NF)
Noise figure is defined as the signal-to-noise ratio at the input of a network divided by
the signal-to-noise ratio at the output of that network
Thermal noise has been considered to be an inherent part of all electronic devices and
circuits and is largely responsible for the degradation of the overall system
performance.

All manufacturers of communications equipment express internal noise in terms of
noise figure (NF).

where S
i
= signal input power (W)
N
i
= noise input power (W)
S
o
= signal output power (W)
N
o
= noise output power (W)
Since N
i
= P
ni
= KTBW
where G
p
= power gain of the system (no units)
DIGITAL COMMUNICATION
SAMPLING PROCESS
An op that is basic to DSP & Dig Comn.
An analog sig is converted to
corresponding seq of pulses usually
spaced uniformly in time.
Sampling rate must be chosen properly to
ensure unique rep of orig analog sig.
SAMPLING RATE
Consider a band limited sig g(t) whose spectrum is
band limited to B Hz.
Sampling g(t) at rate of Hz can be accomplished by
multiplying g(t) by an impulse train , consisting of
unit impulses repeating periodically every secs.
where .
Sampled sig consists of impulses spaced at secs
The n
th
impulse loc at t= , has str .
Thus
S
f
) (t
S
T
o
S
T
S S
f T / 1 =
S
T
S
nT ) (
S
nT g
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
S
n
S T
nT t nT g t g t g
S
= =

o o
) (t
S
T
o
) (t g
) (e G
) (e G
) (t g
B t 2 B t 2
B
e
f
0
A
t
S
T
t
B t 2 B t 2
B
e
f
0
S
f
S
e
QUANTIZATION

mp
-mp
A
l
l
o
w
e
d

q
u
a
n
t
i
z
a
t
i
o
n

l
e
v
e
l
s

2mp/L
m(t)
Quantized samples of m(t)
QUANTIZATION PROCESS
Lim the amp of msg sig m(t)to the rg .
is not necessarily the peak amp of m(t).
The amp of m(t) beyond are chopped off.
Thus is not a parameter of sig m(t) but a
constant of the quantizer.
The amp rg is divided into L
uniformly spaced interval each of width
.
A sample value is appx by mid pt of the
interval in which it lies.
The quantized samples are coded &
transmitted as bin pulses.
) , (
p p
m m
p
m
p
m
p
m
) , (
p p
m m
L m v
p
2 = A
QUANTIZATION ERROR

) , (
p p
m m
p
m
p
m
p
m
) , (
p p
m m
L m v
p
2 = A
DIGITAL CARRIER SYSTEM
DEFINITION
Baseband Digital System:
Sig are tx directly w/o change in freq.
Low freq.
Tx over pair of wire, coax cable, FOC.

Digital Carrier System:
Sig spectrum shifted to high freq rg.
Achieved by modulating a high freq sinusoid
by the baseband sig.
REQMT OF DIG CARRIER SYS
Ant Size.
FDM
TECHNIQUES
Shifting of sig spectrum to a higher freq is
achieved through modulation.
Two types:
Amplitude Modulation (ASK)
Angle Modulation
Freq Modulation (FSK)
Phase Modulation (PSK)
AMPLITUDE SHIFT KEYING (ASK)
Carrier Amp is varied in proportion to msg
sig.
1 0 1 1
0
0 0 1
t
C
e cos
) (t m
t t m
C
e cos ) (
PHASE SHIFT KEYING (PSK)
The info resides in the phase of the pulse.
1 0 1 1
0
0 0 1
t
C
e cos
) (t m
t t m
C
e cos ) (
FREQ SHIFT KEYING (FSK)
Data transmitted by varying carrier freq.
1 0 1 1
0
0 0 1
t
C
e cos
) (t m
1
C
e
0
C
e
Q. 1.

Fill in the blanks:
If energy signal g(t) represents variation of voltage
with time, the unit of its energy is volt sec.
If f(t) is multiplied by an impulse function shifted
towards positive t by an amt T the resultant g(t) is
given as f(T)(t T).
The area under an Impulse function shifted by time
T is equal to unity
Fourier series representation of even periodic
function contains only constant & cosine terms.
If two signals have bandwidth of B1 and B2 hz resp.
The bandwidth of the product of two signals is
B1+B2 Hz.
Q. 2.

State True or False:
For a finite energy signal, the signal amplitude 0;
as time |t|. True
The terms analog and Digital time qualify the nature
of signal along the time axis. False
Impulse function is has zero value at all time instants
except at t = 0 where it is undefined. True
Time compression of a signal results in its spectral
compression. False
An Ideal filter represents a causal system. False
Q. 3.

Mark the correct option/s:
A Ramp signal g(t) = t with |t| is a: (iii) Neither
energy nor a power signal
Amplitude of a Digital signal can take: (iii) finite no
of values
A distortionless transmission allows for: (iv) All of
the above
If a function satisfies weak Dirichlet condition: (ii)
The existence of Fourier series is guaranteed but the
series may not converge at every point
For distortionless transmission. (iii) The amplitude
response |H()| must be a constant and the phase
response () must be a linear function of .
Q 4 (a)
In the ideal case the margin provided by the
correlation coefficient Cn for distinguishing
the two pulses in antipodal scheme is 2 (from -
1 to 1) & in orthogonal it is 1 (0 to 1).
The noise & channel distortion reduce this
margin & hence it is important to start with as
large margin as possible.
Antipodal scheme offers double the margin as
compared to orthogonal scheme & hence it is
preferred over orthogonal scheme.

Q 4 (b)
Ideal filters have time domain response
that starts even before an input is applied.
Thus it represents a non causal system.
Non causal system cannot exist in reality.
Hence it is impossible to realize an ideal
filter.

Q 4 (c)
For the phase duration to be noticeable,
the variation in delay should be of
physically perceptable duration.
In practical system max phase delay
corresponds to a time delay in microsec.



Q 4 (d)
Reqmt of impracticably large Ant size for
efficient txn at low freq forbids use of low
freq.
FDM possible after modulation giving more
efficient use of channel BW.



Q 4 (e)
More no of stages increases the delay td.
Increasing the delay td results in shifting of
the time domain response to right side of
time axis.
The truncation of response to the left of t=0
axis reqd to make the sys causal becomes
less and the sys becomes closer to the
ideal sys giving sharper roll off.


Q 5. (a)
t
-1 0
2
g(t)=2exp(-t/2)
8 4 4
4 2
) (
0
0
1
2
2
= + =
+ =
=
} }
}

dt e dt
dt t g E
t
g
Since g(t)0 as t
The signal g(t) is an energy signal
Q 5. (b)
7
10
5
) 7 (

=
}
e dt e t
t
o
As per sifting property of impulse function

provided impulse function lies between the limits t1 to t2
) ( ) ( ) (
2
1
T f dt t f T t
t
t
=
}
o
When limits are changed from 5 - 10 to -10 to 3 impulse
function lies outside the limit of integration and the integral
results in 0
Q 5. (c)
g(t)
1
-1
2
t
t
= =
=
=
}
}
2
0
2
2
sin
| ) ( |
sin ) (
2
1
dt t
dt t x E Energy
t t x
t
t
x
{ }
t t g Thus
dt t dt t
dt t t g
dt t x t g
E
c where
t cx t g
t
t
x
sin
4
) (
4
sin sin
1
sin ) (
1
) ( ) (
1
) ( ) (
2
0
2
0
2
1
t
t t
t
t
t
t
t
~
= + =
=
=
~
} }
}
}
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

2
2
lim
dt
x d
dx
d
t