Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Transmission
1
Line Coding
Some Characteristics
2
Line coding
3
DC component
4
Lack of synchronization
5
Line coding schemes
6
Note:
7
Unipolar encoding
8
Note:
9
Types of polar encoding
10
Note:
11
Manchester encoding
12
Note:
13
Differential Manchester encoding
14
Note:
15
Transmission
Media
17
Classes of transmission media
18
Guided Media
Twisted-Pair Cable
Coaxial Cable
Fiber-Optic Cable
19
Twisted Pair
20
Unshielded versus Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable
Unshielded Twisted-Pair (UTP)
Most commonly used
Cheaper than STP
Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable (STP)
Has a metal foil or braided-mesh covering that
encases each pair of insulated conductors
Bulkier and more expensive
21
Categories of unshielded twisted-pair cables
Category Bandwidth Data Rate Digital/Analog Use
22
UTP connector
23
UTP performance
24
TWISTED PAIR – Transmission Characteristics
Analog
Amplifiers every 5km to 6km
Digital
Use either analog or digital signals
repeater every 2km or 3km
Limited distance
Limited bandwidth (1MHz)
Limited data rate (100Mbps)
Susceptible to interference and noise
25
TWISTED PAIR - Applications
26
Telephone channel
bandwidth
27
Coaxial Cable
28
BNC connectors
29
Coaxial cable performance
30
Transmission Characteristics
Analog
Amplifiers every few km
Closer if higher frequency
Up to 500MHz
Digital
Repeater every 1km
Closer for higher data rates
Less susceptible to interference and
crosstalk than twisted pair
31
Application
32
Bending of light ray
33
Optical fiber
34
Fiber construction
35
Propagation modes
36
Modes
37
Fiber types
Type Core Cladding Mode
38
Fiber-optic cable connectors
39
Optical fiber performance
40
Advantages and disadvantages
Advantages:
Higher bandwidth
Less signal attenuation
Less interference
Resistance to corrosive materials
Light weight
More immune to tapping
Disadvantages
Expensive to install
41
Application
Long-haul trunks
Metropolitan trunks
Rural exchange trunks
Subscriber loops
LANs
Other
Backbone networks
TV distribution
42
Guided transmission media summary
Type Advantage Disadvantage
Twisted Pair Wire Very inexpensive Doesn’t pass high
Easy to install frequencies well
Already installed in
many locations
43
The Data Link
Layer
Data Link Layer Design
Issues
• Services Provided to the
Network Layer
• Framing
• Error Control
• Flow Control
45
Functions of the Data Link
Layer
• Provide service interface to the
network layer
• Dealing with transmission errors
• Regulating data flow
• Slow receivers not swamped by fast
senders
46
Functions of the Data Link
Layer (2)
Relationship between packets and
frames.
47
Services Provided to
Network Layer
48
Services Provided to
Network Layer (2)
Placement of the data link protocol.
49
Framing
A character stream. (a) Without
errors. (b) With one error.
50
Framing (2)
(a) A frame delimited by flag bytes.
(b) Four examples of byte sequences
before and after stuffing.
51
Framing (3)
Bit stuffing
(a) The original data.
(b) The data as they appear on the line.
(c) The data as they are stored in receiver’s
memory after destuffing.
52
Error Detection and
Correction
• Error-Correcting Codes
• Error-Detecting Codes
53
CRC generator and checker
54
Binary division in a CRC generator
55
Binary division in CRC checker
56
10.10 A polynomial
57
10.11 A polynomial representing a divisor
58
Standard polynomials
Name Polynomial Application
ITU-32 x32 + x26 + x23 + x22 + x16 + x12 + x11 + x10 + LANs
x8 + x7 + x5 + x4 + x2 + x + 1
59
Example
It is obvious that we cannot choose x (binary 10) or x2 + x
(binary 110) as the polynomial because both are divisible
by x. However, we can choose x + 1 (binary 11) because
it is not divisible by x, but is divisible by x + 1. We can
also choose x2 + 1 (binary 101) because it is divisible by
x + 1 (binary division).
60
Example
The CRC-12
x12 + x11 + x3 + x + 1
which has a degree of 12, will detect all burst errors
affecting an odd number of bits, will detect all burst
errors with a length less than or equal to 12, and will
detect, 99.97 percent of the time, burst errors with a
length of 12 or more.
61
Checksum
62
Data unit and checksum
63
Note:
64
Note:
65
Example
Suppose the following block of 16 bits is to be sent using a
checksum of 8 bits.
10101001 00111001
The numbers are added using one’s complement
10101001
00111001
------------
Sum 11100010
Checksum 00011101
The pattern sent is 10101001 00111001 00011101
66
Example
Now suppose the receiver receives the pattern sent in previous
Example and there is no error.
10101001 00111001 00011101
When the receiver adds the three sections, it will get all 1s, which,
after complementing, is all 0s and shows that there is no error.
10101001
00111001
00011101
Sum 11111111
Complement 00000000 means that the pattern is OK.
67
Example
Now suppose there is a burst error of length 5 that affects 4 bits.
10101111 11111001 00011101
When the receiver adds the three sections, it gets
10101111
11111001
00011101
Partial Sum 1 11000101
Carry 1
Sum 11000110
Complement 00111001 the pattern is corrupted.
68
Correction
Retransmission
69
Data and redundancy bits
Number of Number of Total
data bits redundancy bits bits
m r m+r
1 2 3
2 3 5
3 3 6
4 3 7
5 4 9
6 4 10
7 4 11
70
Positions of redundancy bits in Hamming code
71
Redundancy bits calculation
72
Example of redundancy bit calculation
73
Error detection using Hamming code
74
Burst error correction example
75