STOCK PREPARATION

Objectives
To process the fibrous raw materials (pulps) and non-fibrous components (additives) Then combine these constituents continuously and uniformly into the papermaking furnish.

Dispersion (REPULPING). Dry pulp is dispersed into water to form a slush or slurry. The operation can be either batch or continuous.

Beating and Refining. The fibers are subjected to mechanical action to develop their optimal with respect to the product being made. The operation is usually continuous, but some pulps are still treated batch-wise. Utilization of Wet End Additives. A wide variety of chemicals and mineral additives are used to impart specificproperties to the paper product or to effect economies in the papermaking process. Preparation is usually carried out batch-wise.
Metering and Blending. The various fibrous and nonfibrous components are continuously combined and blended to form the papermaking furnish.

 Dispersion can be described to any mechanical action that puts pulp fibers into slurry. This action of pulper just adequate to enable the slurry to be pumped. The various papermaking materials (i.e. virgin pulps, broke, various reclaimed papers) have, different energy requirements for pulping. Among virgin pulps, unbleached kraft is notably difficult to reslurry and defiber, especially after storage at very low moisture levels. Usually broke streams are fairly easy to pulp unless wet strength additives have been used. The greatest problems are experienced when utilizing waste papers and other reclaimed fibers. Generally, energy requirements can be minimized by operating at the highest practical consistency (5-7%) and at temperatures above 50oC.

A typical pulper adaptable for either batch or continuous operation. All pulpers of this type are open at the top to allow charging of pulp bales or sheets without danger of clogging. They employ one or more revolving elements that provide the turbulence and circulation necessary to disintegrate the fiber bundles.

The stock suspension (up to 4.5% consistency) is split into streams by the slits in the rotor and stator rings, which mate with one another.

The resulting forces serve to loosen the bonds between fibers and reduce any flakes into individual fibers.

BEATING AND REFINING

The terms "beating" interchangeably. and "refining" are used

More precisely, beating refers to the action of rotating bars opposite a stationary bedplate as the fibers flow past perpendicular to the bar. This operation is exemplified in the batch Hollander beater, the original refining machine, which is still used in some older paper mills; especially for handling such difficult furnishes as jute, hemp, flax, and cotton. Refining refers to the action carried out in continuous conical or disk-type refiners where the fibers flow parallel to the bar crossings. In all cases, the objective is to "develop" or modify the pulp fibers in an optimal manner for the demands of the particular papermaking furnish.

Simplified representation of a beater

Simplified representation of a Jordan conical refiner

Mechanism of Refining
Both mechanical and hydraulic forces are employed to alter the fiber characteristics. Two major types of action are involved; shear stresses are caused by rolling, twisting, tensional actions between the bars and in the grooves and channels of the refiner; Normal stresses (either tensional or compressive) are caused by bending, rolling, twisting, crushing, pulling and pushing actions on the fiber clumps caught between the bar-to- bar surfaces.

The first effect is the partial removal of the primary wall.

Although the primary wall is permeable to water, it does not "swell". Removal of the P-layer exposes the secondary wall and promotes hydration (i.e., absorption of water into the molecular structure) and fiber flexibility. The further action of fibrillation involves loosening of the fibrils and raising of the finer microfibrils on the surface of the fibers, resulting in a very large increase in surface area for the beaten fibers.

Some fiber shortening (or cutting) almost always occurs during refining due to the shearing action of the bar crossings.
Fiber cutting is usually considered undesirable because it results in slower drainage and loss of strength. Occasionally, a cutting action is promoted to obtain good sheet formation from a long-fibered pulp.

Table. What happens during refining?

Primary Effects
1. Removal of primary wall; formation of fiber debris or "fines". 2. Penetration of water into cell wall (referred to as "bruising" and "swelling"). 3. Breaking of some intra-fiber hydrogen bonds; replacement by water-fiber hydrogen bonds (hydration). 4. Increased fiber flexibility. 5. External fibrillation and foliation. 6. Fiber shortening.

Secondary Effects
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Fractures (cracks) in the cell wall. Fiber stretching and/or compression. Partial solubilization of surface hemicelluloses into "gels". Straightening of fibers (low consistency). Curling of fibers (high consistency).

Control Parameters
Two parameters are of primary importance, regardless of what refining method is employed: Net specific energy = Net energy applied / unit weight of pulp

Refining intensity

= Net specific energy / effective refining area

A third parameter is defined by the above: Intensity factor = Net energy applied / effective refining area

The concept of effective refining area is dependent upon knowledge of the actual barto-bar contact area between the refining surfaces.

While the amount of work done on the pulp (i.e., energy absorbed) is basic, the manner in which the work is carried out can be equally important.
("A fiber is aware of only two things -how many times it is hit, and how hard it is hit each time."). A relatively low refining intensity (i.e., a gradual, step-by-step application of energy) provides greater fibrillation, less cutting, and more satisfactory development of fiber properties.

Generally, kraft pulps are more difficult to refine than sulfite pulps, with soda pulps having the lowest energy requirement. Unbleached pulps are more difficult to refine than bleached pulps.

Pulps with higher lignin content respond less favorably to beating because the, lignin does not absorb water, and the fibers do not "swell" as much.
Normally, mechanical pulps are not refined because the fibers are stiff and severe cutting results. ("Post-refining" of mechanical pulps is sometimes carried out for drainage control, but not for strength development.) By contrast, pulps containing large percentages of hemicelluloses are easy to refine and respond well to the input of mechanical energy Hemicellulose has a great affinity for water; this promotes swelling" and fibrillation. Dissolving-type pulps, which are high in alpha cellulose, refine slowly and provide weak sheets.

Dried pulps, including secondary fibers, do not absorb water as readily and are more difficult to refine than pulps which have never been dried, Over-drying or uneven drying may contribute to lower strength, owing to uneven strength development if sufficient time is not allowed for rewetting. Higher pH levels (above 7) promote faster beating in accordance with the greater swelling of cellulose in alkaline media. A high consistency generally contributes to a good beating response because there is more fiber-To-fiber contact and less cutting action.

Table. Variables affecting refining

Raw Materials
wood species pulping method degree of pulping bleaching treatm6nt prior processing,(e.g., drying, mechanical treatment) fiber length distribution fiber coarseness early wood/latewood ratio chemical composition (lignin, cellulose, hemicellulose)

Equipment Characteristics
bar size and shape area of bars and grooves depth of grooves presence or absence of dams materials of construction (tackle) wear patterns bar angles speed of rotation (peripheral speed)

Process Variables
Temperature additives pH pretreatments consistency production rate applied energy

Types of Refiners
In conical refiners, the rotating plug (rotor) and its housing (stator) are fitted with metal bars oriented length wise. The fibers flow parallel to the bars.

The position of the plug determines the clearance of the bars and controls the amount of work done on the fibers. Disc refiners are a more recent development, and are available in a wide variety of designs and disc patterns.

The following are the principal design: Rotating disc opposite stationary disc, Two opposing rotating discs, Rotating double-sided disc between two stationary discs. It should be noted that, within certain limits and when properly applied, there is not a great difference between conical and disc refiners regarding their ability to develop fibers.

Effect of Refining on Pulp and Paper Properties The actual response to refining will depend on the characteristics, of the pulp fibers, the equipment used and the operation conditions. In general increased refining reduces tear strength, and improves burst, tensile strength and folding endurance due to improved bonding. As refining is increased, the stock becomes slower (i.e. has greater drainage resistance), and the pulp sheet becomes more dense (less bulky), causing reduced porosity, loss of opacity, and decreased dimensional stability.

Control of the Refining Process

In most refining systems, there are generally two specific objectives: Optimum strength development, Control of sheet formation and wire drainage.

The virgin fiber is treated in the primary stage, utilizing low-intensity refining. The refiner size and speed should be not greater than required to handle throughput in order to minimize energy requirements. This stage is usually operated at a constant specific energy for the product being produced.

The second stage treats the entire paper furnish (pre-refined virgin fiber, broke, fillers, etc.) immediately ahead of the paper machine.
Here, optimum results are obtained with high-intensity refining and relatively, low specific energy. This stage can be controlled to constant freeness by utilizing a continuous freeness sensor to provide feedback control of refiner loading.

UTILIZATION OF WET END ADDITIVES Only a limited range of properties can be achieved in paper manufacture from plant fibres alone. Because of this, the paper maker combines fibres with a wide array of chemical additives when preparing the furnish for a particular grade of paper. Additives Categories: Functional additives Chemical processing aids. Functional additives are those which either enhance an existing property or impart a new property to paper. Chemical processing aids on the other hand either promote the performance of the functional additives or assist the papermaker in maintaining the cleanliness and runnability of the paper machine system.

Table. Different types of wet-end chemical additives Functional Additives

Type of additive
Sizing agents

Typical chemicals
Rosin size/alum, ketene dimers, alkyl succinic anhydride Starches, gums, polyacrylamides Urea formaldehyde, melamine formaldehyde, polyamine resins Clay, talc, titanium dioxide, calcium carbonate Dyes, coloured pigments, optical whiteners

Application
Impart water penetration resistance to paper

Dry strength agents Wet strength resins

Increase paper dry strength (tensile, stiffness, etc.) Impart increased strength to paper saturated with water

Fillers

Improve optical and printing properties Impart colours and tints to paper

Colouring agents

Table-IB. Different types of wet-end chemical additives Chemical Processing Aids Type of additive
Retention aids

Typical chemicals
Cationic and anionic polyacrylamides, alum Proprietary chemicals

Application
Improve retention of fines and fillers Improve drainage, sheet formation, cleanliness, prevent foam formation and deposit problems Control microbiological growth and associated deposit problems Prevent deposition and accumulation of pitch Increase water removal rates on paper machine

Defoamers

Slime control agents Pitch control agents Drainage aids

Proprietary chemicals

Talc, alum, dispersants

Formation aids

High molecular weight anionic polymers, gums, polyacrylamides

Improve distribution of fibres by decreasing fibre-fibre flocculation

Control pH

Acids and base

Speciality chemicals

Corrosion inhibition, flameproofing, antitarnishing

DRY STRENGTH AGENTS

The dry strength of paper depends on the strength of fibres, the distribution of the fibres within the sheet, and the degree of inter fibre bonding. Although the degree of inter-fibre bonding can be controlled through mechanical refining, non-fibrous additive can also enhance inter-fibre bonding. Some of the common materials used as dry strength agents are:
Starches (Natural, modified) Gums (Guar gum, Locust bean gum) Polyacrylamides (Cationic, anionic)

Starch
The starch is usually added as a dispersion produced by cooking it or as a pre-gelatinized starch. The starch may be added at any point in the stock delivery system, such as at the headbox, fan pump, stock chest or beater depending upon the characteristics of starch, type of paper being made, and the operating characteristics of machine. The unmodified starches used are corn, potato, tapioca; Modified Starches include oxidized, phosphate ester, hydroxyethyl and cationic starches. Cationic starches, because of their attraction to the anionic cellulose fibre, are virtually 100% retained on the pulps and the levels of addition usually found are 0.2 - 2.0% on the fibre. The starch phosphates are effectively retained in the wet sheet in the presence of alum.

Gums
Vegetable gums are another group of naturally occurring polysaccharides which find extensive use as wet end additive to improve dry strength of paper.
Two types of gums are generally used in pulp and paper industry, namely, guar gum and locust bean gum. Gums are cold water swelling polymers and highly efficient water thickening agents. Gums and their derivatives are used at concentrations below 1%. At 3% or above they are high-viscosity products looking more like gels. Gums improve bursting strength, tensile strength; pick resistance, finish, and porosity of paper.

They also improve hydration of pulps and retention of fines.

Synthetic Resins
Dry-strength resins apparently work by supplementing the number of inter-fibre hydrogen bonds. Polysaccharides, like cellulose, have hydroxyl groups available for hydrogen bonding, whereas acrylamide-based synthetic resins can hydrogen bond through the amide group. Synthetic dry-strength resins have the advantage that their molecular structure can be controlled relatively easily. Variables such as molecular weight, degree of linearity, and number and type of substituent groups can be controlled and thus optimized to give maximum performance properties.

For this reason, synthetic dry-strength resins are often more efficient than the natural polymers in providing dry-strength improvement. Since the usage level rarely exceeds 0.5 percent based on the fibre, in many cases dry-strength resins are competitive with starches and gums even though they may be more expensive on a unit weight basis.

Homopolyacrylamide does not have sufficient substantively to most cellulose pulps to make it useful without some modifications. Thus, all commercial acylamide based dry strength resins contain some substituent that enhances the adsorption properties of the resin.
This substituent may be anionic or cationic.

Anionic Acrylamide Resins

These resins are available in powder form and are easily water soluble. Since the resin itself is anionic it is not substantive to negative cellulose fibres and requires alum addition as well.

Paper properties improved by this resin are tensile strength bursting strength, folding endurance internal bonding strength and surface strength.
The dry strength imparted by anionic resin is accomplished without affecting bulk density, opacity, porosity or dimensional stability. Other advantages of this resin include higher retention of fillers, much improved rosin sizing, faster drainage on wire and easier drying. Amount of resin to be added can vary from 1 to 4.5 k g/tonne. This resins is effective for all grades of pulp except stone groundwood. Since it is anionic it requires addition of about 11 kg alum/tonne of pulp also.

Cationic Acrylamide Resin

These resins are directly substantive to anionic pulp fibres eliminating the dependence on alum for their retention. Advantages of cationic polyacrylamide are:

Effective over a broad pH range.

Perform in absence of alum.

Effective to all types of pulp.

Improve tensile, burst, fold, stiffness, and ring crush.

Improve filler retention, drying rate and rosin sizing.

Ordinarily 0.2 to 0.5 percent resin based on fibre is used. The following guidelines are helpful for selection of the point of addition in the stock system:
Rosin size should be `set' by alum before resin is added. Resin should be added after all shearing actions on the stock are over. Dilution of resin to 0.5 - 2.0% concentration with white water before addition assures good distribution of resin. Adequate mixing of resin and stock should be provided at lower dilutions especially when resin fibre contact time is less. Resin should be added to stock, not to the wire pit water returning to the fan pump.

WET STRENGTH RESINS

The ability of paper to retain its strength even when wetted with water is termed its "wet strength". In many end use situations paper is exposed to water, and the drop in paper strength may be a serious disadvantage, for example in packaging papers, filter papers, and towelling tissues. Wet strength papers are those which on wetting retain at least 15% of their dry strength. In practice two ways are followed to improve wet strength of paper. Firstly, by providing an impermeable film on the paper surface, thus preventing the paper bonds from coming into contact with the bond-breaking water. Secondly, by using chemicals to establish between the fibres some additional bonds that are not easily broken by water.

The synthetic resins that are used as wet strength agents normally are water soluble, cationic precondentsates. These high molecular compounds are fixed to the fibres, initially assisted by some additives, and will subsequently form water insoluble resin during the continued condensation caused by the heating during the paper drying. Only about 75 to 80 percent of the attainable wet strength level is reached during papermaking. Therefore, the wet strength paper should be stored for about 4 weeks before its actual use to achieve its full wet strength.

During this curing period continued condensation of the resin takes place. However, the resin condensation is reversible and depends on factors like temperature, moisture content and pH. The condensation reaction may be reversed to hydrolysation resulting in a drop in wet strength paper during long storage periods.

The commonly used wet strength resins are:

Ureaformaldehyde Resins Melamineformaldehyde Resins Polyamine/polyamide resins.

The Recovery of Broke for Wet Strength Paper

Whereas the purpose of the wet strength treatment is to produce paper grades that are not affected by water, it makes the disintegration of paper in water difficult. Easy disintegration is an essential requirement for recovery of broke. It is also economically mandatory to recycle the dry wet-strength waste paper. Of course these requirements are contradictory to each other and the recovery of broke may be a difficult process.

FILLERS (OR LOADERS)

Today, the addition of fillers is regarded as an integral part of the paper making process. A large number of fillers are available to the papermaker, ranging from cheap, low-grade clays to the expensive titanium dioxide pigments. From a practical standpoint, both have their place in the paper industry. To be of practical interest as fillers, pigments must meet certain requirements. They should have a high degree of whiteness, a high index of refraction, small particle size, low solubility in water, and low specific gravity. It is also desirable that the filler be chemically inert to avoid unfavourable reactions with other components of the papermaking system. The filler should contain a minimum of impurities and it is of special importance that the grit content be low to avoid excessive wear of the wire and other processing equipment. Unless the filler has very unusual properties, it must be cheap.

Effect of Fillers on Sheet Properties

The principal object of adding fillers to paper is to improve the opacity and the brightness. The other properties which are also affected favourably by the addition of fillers are smoothness, ink absorption, softness, dimensional stability etc. There may also be other special reasons for adding fillers, for example, the use of CaCO3 is cigarette papers to regulate the rate of combustion and the use of carbon as a conducting agent in electrical conducting paper. These special properties may also be obtained by incorporating the pigments in a coating layer.

The addition of a high percentage of fillers also results in some undesirable effects such as decrease in strength, bulk, softness of the sheet. Ordinarily, the sizing is not affected until 10 to 15% filler is added, but even a smaller amount of an alkaline pigment ( e.g., Calcium carbonate) may be harmful in this respect. Another undesirable effect is the dusting that may be seen at the calender, the rewinder, or the printing press. The dust may be severe if the paper contains mechanical pulp or if the moisture content is low.

Optical Properties
According to Kubelka-Munk theory, the brightness and opacity of paper can be expressed in terms of two fundamental parameters; the specific absorption coefficient k and the specific scattering.
TABLE-IIA Properties of Fillers Filler Clay Talc Cal. Carbonate Natural Pptd. Pptd. Pearl filler Baryta CaCO3 CaCO3 CaCO3 CaCO4 BaSO4 2.65 2.65 2.65 2.8-3.0 4.3-4.4 Rounded Rhombohedral Acicular(needless) Acicular Acicular Formula Al2O3.2SiO2 Mg.SiO2 Specific gravity 2.58 2.7 Particle shape Platelet Platelet

Blanc fixe
Zinc sulphide Anatase Rutile

BaSO4
ZnS TiO2 TiO2

4.4
4.0 3.90 4.20

Acicular
Spherical Spherical Spherical

TABLE Properties of Fillers

Filler
Clay Talc Cal. Carbonate

Reactive Index
1.56 1.57

Scattering Coefficient
9.5-11.5 ---

Abrasiveness (mg)
12-17 4-10-30

Natural
Pptd. Pptd. Pearl filler Baryta Blanc fixe Zinc sulphide Anatase Rutile

1.65
1.658 ----1.64 1.64 2.37 2.55 2.70

17-24
28-36 30 9.4 7.8 14.3 4.0 43.51 54-68

2-10
2-7 4-1.2 6-10 3-4 1-2 12 12-44 9.89

Note: Abrasiveness is defined as loss in mg of a standardized paper machine wire (bronze for wrap, brass for the chute wires) after 6,000 cycles of the valley abrasion tester by pigment slurry.

Coefficient s. The scattering coefficient of paper bears a linear relationship to the scattering coefficients of its components. If x is the weight fraction of filler, the scattering coefficient of paper can be found by: Spaper = x * Sfiller + (1-x) * Spulp
Addition of a small amount of high scattering power filler increases the scattering power of paper thereby increasing its brightness and opacity. The scattering coefficient strongly depends on the refractive index of the particles and the surrounding medium. The ability to scatter light is expressed as a function of two refractive indices. R = [(n1- n2)/(n1+ n2)]2 Where n1 and n2 are the refractive indices of the two adjacent materials. The refractive indices for some familiar paper making materials.

Refractive Indices of Some Common Paper Making Materials Material RI

Air
Water Cellulose Paraffin Starch Animal glue Linseed oil

1.0
1.33 1.53 1.43 1.53 1.53 1.48

In an unfilled sheet the opacity depends on the difference in refractive indices of cellulose and air, that is, 1.53 and 1.0 respectively. Fillers, such as clay, that have refractive index close to that of cellulose increase the light scattering by increasing the total scattering surface. This works well as long as the open space within the sheet is occupied by air, but if the air in the sheet is replaced with wax, the situation becomes quite different. Cellulose air interface will have an R value about 40 times greater than will a cellulose wax interface. This means that an unfilled waxed paper will be practically transparent. The situation can be improved only by addition of high refractive index fillers (e.g. TiO2).

The refractive index of many cheaper pigments is not much different from that of fibre, yet they increase the scattering coefficient of the paper. This is due to increase in scattering interfacial area, since the filler particles are much smaller than the pulp fibres. As the particle size of the pigment is decreased, pronounced optima in scattering and reflection are obtained. The correct particle size for maximum coverage and hiding power is about one-half of the wavelengths of light. That is, the best particle size is in the range of 0.15 m to 0.5 m for viewing in the ordinary light.

It is evident from the foregoing discussion that it is difficult to assign a definite scattering coefficient value to a given filler as a refractive index can be assigned. The S value will depend on the processing conditions under which the filler is applied. It is, however, possible to give a range that is reasonable for different pigments and other raw materials.

Specific Scattering Coefficient of Pulp and Pigment Material Chemical Pulp Mechanical Pulp CaCO3 Precipitated Refractive Index 0.020 - 0.040 0.050 - 0.080 0.170 - 0.210

CaCO3 Ground
Clay Filler Grade Clay Coating Grade TiO2 Anatase TiO2 Rutile

0.100 - 0.120
0.120 - 0.150 0.140 - 0.150 0.400 - 0.550 0.530 - 0.700

Well dispersed and homogeneously distributed particles or flocs with air interfaces, in the paper will be more efficient than tight packing of several pigments into dense aggregates. Excessive calendering will reduce the brightness of filled paper significantly. This effect is apparently dependent on the particle shape of the pigment.

Plate-like pigments such as clay are worst in this respect, whereas calcium carbonate is less likely to give blackening on the suspercaleder.
Pigments also improve the brightness stability of paper which may be particularly important when mechanical pulp is used. The pigment will, however, be more efficient if applied in a coating layer for this purpose.

Strength Properties
The addition of filler results in a significant loss in strength. There are two reasons for this:

In a sheet of given grammage, the number of fibres will be reduced with addition of filler and the sheet will be weaker accordingly. The strength of paper is due mainly to fibre-fibre bonds. The pigment particles occupy spaces between the fibres and, thus interfere with the fibre bonding.

Colouring Materials
There are two basic types of colouring materials; dyes and pigments. Dyes are soluble - some are soluble in water; some are soluble in solvents such as alcohol and gasoline. Pigments are insoluble. White pigments, also called fillers, include clay, chalk, talc, and TiO2. These are generally naturally occurring materials finely ground and finely dispersed. The particle size may be as small as 1 to 2 m. Examples of coloured pigments are chrome yellows-Molybdate oranges, chrome oranges ironoxides, chrome greens- Ultramarine. Pigments, inorganic or synthetic organic materials, have no affinity for the fibre. They are held on the fibre by alum. A pH of 5.5 or less is necessary for their full retention. Pigments in general have very good light fastness (i.e. colour does not fade in the presence of light).

They do not granite the sheet (i.e. selectively dye one fibre darker than another). Large amounts of pigments weaken the sheet. Pigments are used extensively in colouring coating grades of papers. Dyes can be of basic, acid, or direct type. Basic dyes are salts which ionize when dissolved in water with the dye portion being cationic and the anion being a chloride, hydrochloride, sulphate, acetate or oxalate radical. Basic dyes have little affinity for cellulose fibres. But they have a strong affinity for lignin and other non cellulosic parts of the fibre. They are used in ground wood and unbleached furnishes. Basic dyes are bright and have high tinctorial value making them economical. The disadvantages of basic dyes are their low order of solubility and poor light fastness. Paper grades where these dyes are used include bags, wrapping, directory papers, yellow pages, newsprint, moulded pulp containers used for packing fruits, vegetables and eggs.

Acid dyes are usually the potassium or sodium salts of the corresponding colour acids. They have little affinity for paper fibre either bleached or unbleached. They require the use of size and alum or some other chemical mordant for their retention in sheet. Because of their retention behaviour they produce two sided paper. Due to their good solubility acid dyes are recommended for surface and calender colouring. Acid dyes tend to follow water vapour in sheet drying operation migrating to the surface giving a mottled appearance.

Direct dyes are salts of dye acids, chemically similar to acid dyes but more complex and less soluble. All direct dyes are Azo dyes. They are called 'Direct Dyes' because of their direct affinity for paper fibre and are used for dyeing most grades of paper. Retention of direct dyes can be further improved by addition of alum. These dyes have an alkaline pH of 8 to 12. They are available dry power or in liquid form. Literally thousands of dyes have been synthesized over the years. For comparison of one manufacturer's dyes with another's each dye is assigned a colour Index (CI) number.

Points to Consider in Dying

Dyes differ in their attraction for different fibres and fibre fractions. Same amount of dye used on a hardwood pulp will producer a lighter shade than on a softwood furnish (hardwoods have larger surface area). Some dyes have a strong affinity for clay producing top- sidedness when used in a clay filled sheet. Some dyes have negligible affinity for clay leaving the filler particles undyed resulting in a bottom sided sheet. TiO2 will weaken all dyed shades. Chalk is alkaline in nature and should be used only in neutral or alkaline sized papers. A slow stock will dye deeper than will a free stock. In light shades this is not noticeable. The dye may be added before or after the size but must always be added before the alum for optimum results. If possible, the dye should be added early in the pulp preparation cycle to provide maximum time for mixing and for the dye to exhaust onto the fibre. Direct dyes are anionic, have an alkaline pH and will precipitate if alum is added to the dye solution. The precipitated dye-alum complex will then act as coloured pigment.

RETENTION OF FILLERS AND FINES

There are good reasons to have a high one-pass retention of filler and fines. Poor one-pass retention implies build up in the white water, and this will reduce the rate of drainage and hence the production on the machine. A high one-pass retention will reduce felt filling, contribute to a longer felt life, will give a more homogeneous paper sheet, will reduce the load on the save alls and other units in the recovery system that are difficult to operate and easy to overload. There are two general aspects of the retention of fine particles: mechanical entrapment and colloidal forces. In mechanical entrapment the particles are held mechanically in the structure of the forming web. This mechanism is analogous to other filtration operations, except that the filtering web is in the process of formation on the wire of the paper machine. Some investigators consider this to be the principal mechanism of fines retention.

Colloidal forces are the forces of attraction between the surfaces of the fines and the fibres. Such forces tend to resist the hydrodynamic forces carrying the fines into the white water. This mechanism is really one of flocculation. Most scientists today believe that the colloidal (or electrokinetic) effects are greater than the effect of the mechanical forces. The total retention is, however, a combination of both, and the relative importance is dependent on the particle size. Colloidal forces will play a greater role when the particles are small, and filtration will be more active with large particles. Pulp fibres and filler particles normally carry a negative surface charge when dispersed in water (asbestos is an exception to this rule). Because of their like charge fibres and filler particles repel each other and prevent any flocculation. This charge is measured in terms of Zeta potential. An improvement of the retention can be obtained by reversing the charge of either the filler or the pulp, and this can be accomplished either by changing the pH of the system or by adding other chemical components.

Alum has a profound effect on the Zeta potential of the filler and in general on the electrokinetic behaviour of the entire system. If alum is added to pulp fibres, the charge on the fibres will be reversed to positive in a pH range between 4.5 and 7, which will promote flocculation of filler particles. The tendency to flocculate should be maximum at the isoelectric point, i.e. when zeta potential is close to zero. Flocculated pigment or pigment alumina aggregates will be much better retained because of their size and their attraction to the fibre surface. Addition of 1 to 2% alum based on fibres and filler increases the retention of the filler. The control of the alum application may be directed toward high rosin size efficiency or to favour best retention efficiency of the expensive Titanium dioxide as the economics demand. For high retention, the pH should be so adjusted that a high cationic charge on aluminium atom is obtained which is favoured at low values of pH.

Other retention aids include natural polymers such as carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) and starch, and synthetic organic polymers. Cationic starch may function effectively as a retention aid for fillers. Synthetic polymers are available in the cationic, anionic and nonionic forms. Fibre-Titanium-Polymer or Fibre-Polymer-Titanium are nearly equivalent sequences and both of then are better than the Titanium-Polymer-Fibre sequence. In the titanium-alum-fibre sequence the retention is very sensitive to pH variations probably because of the character of the alum-TiO2 aggregates. The flocs formed should be strong enough to withstand the hydrodynamic forces acting on the paper machine. This means that the retention aid should be added to the furnish late in the process, preferably after the fan pump, i.e. in or close to the headbox. It is a complicated task to determine the optimum conditions for retention. All retention aids should be tested under mill conditions.

FOAM CONTROL Foam consists of small bubbles of gas, usually air or carbon dioxide, in liquid contaminated by a surface active agent. The surfactant stabilizes the water film around the bubbles or air cells. Foam is a nuisance if it overflows out of equipment such as pulp washers, chests, paper machine head boxes or white water trays. Spilled foam carries with it fibre fines, rosin size, and other collided materials. Presence of foam in the stock reduces the drainage rate of paper webs, spoils the formation ( Thin spots of pin holes) produces foam spots in the sheet.

Causes Foam Formation

There are two essential components of the foam formation; the presence of air and surfactant.
Mechanical entrapment of air is due to the incorrect agitation or cascading of stock suspensions, air leakage in pumps, or excessive capacity of pumps. The surfactants can be introduced by mill water contaminated by detergents, residuals from pulping, bleaching or deinking, or by rosin size, retention aids dyestuffs, or other additives. The stability of foam depends up on the size of the bubbles, the nature of the surfactant, the pH and the temperature.

The stability of foam becomes yet stronger when small slid particles between the bubbles prevent their coalescence.
Any visible foam is not as harmful as the nonvisible foam.

Defoaming
The visible foam can be destroyed by water sprays. Steam shows are more effective because they cause excessive stress on the bubble walls due to sudden expansion of the films. Chemical defamers such as higher alcohols, kerosene, silicones, and mixtures of hydrocarbons, fats, and fatty glycerides are added to coalesce the small bubbles. The defoamer must break through the surface film on the bubbles and create weak thin spots in the film. The effectiveness of defoamers depends on the concentration of the surfactant in the foaming system; every effort should be made to minimize the content of contaminating surfactant in the system, otherwise chemical defoamers can not be effective. The defoamer must be added where the air is introduced or is still finally dispersed prior to stabilization of the bubble. Usually defoamers in paste form are more efficient and cause less trouble with stickiness on wet presses than either solid or liquid products. Excess defoamer causes loss of strength by debonding, and reduces sizing. Longer amounts of rosin sizing aggravate foaming. Avoidance of foam generation is better solution than use of chemical defoamers. Even experienced specialists frequently have too evaluate several defoamers to solve difficult problems.

SLIME CONTROL
The process conditions in the paper industry are favourable for microbiological growth: organic raw materials, large volumes of fresh water, optimal temperature, ample air supply, and a large degree of process water recirculation. This microbiological activity causes operational and quality problems, and therefore has to be controlled. Common microorganism present in the paper machine system is fungi and bacterial. The colonies of these cells appear as slimy lumps. When such lumps are present in the water flows, they tend to adhere to burry surfaces, and, when the flow speed is low, even to polished machine parts. Moreover, these microorganisms make the resin particles that are present in the system, more sticky. These resin particles may be due to the pitch component of the pulp or the rosin sizing material added to the stock.

The micro organisms multiply at a very high rate, if given the optimal physical conditions. The number may increase many folds within hours.

The multiplication speed increases rapidly with raising temperature, until the temperature is reached where the whole population is killed. The problems caused by biological slime may be roughly divided into two groups:
Operational problems, and Quality problems

Operational Problems Plugging of mesh openings on the wire,causing holes in paper.

Filling press felts and screens.

Depositing onto rolls, with subsequent picking on the paper web, giving web breaks. Depositing onto surfaces in piping, headboxes, etc. Corrosion on wire and machine parts (anaerobic bacteria). Larger lumps in the web cause breaks.

Quality problems

As the slime lumps may appear after the machine screens, the paper will suffer from specks and holes, caused by plugged meshes in the forming wire and for other reasons.
The slime lumps may appear as fibre containing lumps that are not dispersed in the stock supply system and the headbox, giving thick spots in the paper, which subsequently are compressed in the machine calender, giving transparent "fisheyes". Anaerobic biological activity may cause sulphur containing gases having bad odour, making it unfit for certain end uses, like packaging materials for foodstuffs. The microbiological activity generally will reduce the paper brightness.

Action against Biological Slime

The slime control measures may be of three different kinds:

Improved machine design. Keeping the system clean. The use of chemical slimicides.
There is a large number of slimicides available:

Simple, inorganic compounds Compounds involving heavy metal ions Compounds with halogens Organic, sulphur containing compounds Other poisons.

Simple, inorganic compounds: Cl2, HCl SO2, chloramine. Chlorination of fresh water is a cheap and efficient method to disinfect it, but it cannot be used for process water because it will also affect the fibres. Chloramine has to some extent been used in such waters. Compounds containing heavy metal ions: Hg, Sn, Zn, Ag, Cu. Among these compounds, Hg-phenylacetate was extensively used as preservative for moist mechanical pulp, being very effective against coliform bacteria and fungi. However, phenyl-Hg gradually transforms into methyl-Hg after having been discharged from the mill. Methyl-Hg is far more toxic and accumulates in the living beings, therefore its use is now a day forbidden. Some tin containing compounds have been found to be efficient and are being used.

Compounds containing halogen: Chlorine and bromine. Chlorinated phenols (e.g. pentachlorphenyl) have been extensively used in the past, but they are generally not accepted today as they decompose very slowly and tend to be accumulated in living beings. Bromine compounds are equally effective and generally less stable. They normally decompose in two days.

Organic, sulphur containing compounds: Several grades are available within this group. Methylenebithiocyanate is a well reputed agent.
Other Poisons: Besides the listed groups, there are several other slimicides available and new ones are steadily synthesised. A group that has been introduced recently are the nitrofuranes. They show low toxicity against animals and human beings, however, are very efficient slimicides. One anti-slime measure that does not involve the use of poisons at all is the addition of anionic or preferably cationic dispersants to reduce the deposition of pitch on machine parts. As the pitch acts as a main nutrition for slime, the basis for slime is therefore reduced.

The most important points at which to add slimicides may to some extent vary, dependent on the location of the most important infection source. Normally, the following points of anti-slime treatment are recommended:
White water chest (the short circulation)
Infected areas of the pulp supply Recovered pulp Broke pulper, and broke chest.

The adaption of microorganisms to the slimicides

One serious problem in the actions against biological slime is the ability of microorganisms to develop resistance against the applied slimicide. With several hundred microorganism species present in a machine system, there always will be some that develop considerable resistance to the slimicide being used reducing its efficiency. One therefore has to shift between several slimicides that are based on different chemical principles. A microorganism resistant to one slimicide principle is not likely to be resistant to the other. Thus, by shifting forth and back between different slimicides, one can avoid the development of a micro-flora of high resistance. The mechanism discussed here also explains the common experience, that whatever new anti slime agent is tested, it appears more efficient than the preceding one. The problem is just that after some time the microorganisms will have developed some resistance even against the new slime agent.

CONTROL OF PITCH
Oleoresinous extractives from soft and hardwoods can agglomerate to form pitch deposits in pulp and paper operations. The sticky extractives collect into dark coloured bells and cause dirt specks in the pulp & paper. Much worse in their sticking in paper machine wires and felts, which causes wet end breaks. Sticking on wet presses or machine calenders is very objection able. Higher concentrations of oleoresinous extractives exist in medullary ray cells of woods than in other fibres. A considerable reduction in pitch can be obtained by removed of the fines with fractionating screens. Dispersion by sulphonated naphthalene formaldehyde products such as Blancol or Tamol is helpful in certain cases, for example in natural semi chemical pulps where electrophoretic measures are used for control. Talc, bentonite or diatomaceous earth can be used to adsorb pitch. An addition of 1% talc on weight of pulp reduces the harmful pitch by one half and 2% eliminates about 75%.

METERING AND BLENDING OF FURNISHES

Metering and blending of the various furnish components is important function of the stock preparation system, from the standpoint of how much harm can occur if not handled properly. It must be emphasized that variation in furnish composition will manifest itself as erratic behavior of stock on the forming wire, fluctuation of wet web response during subsequent processing steps on the paper machine, and variability in product quality. Accurate proportioning of pulps and additives into a blend depends on control of either consistency (or concentration) and flow rate for each component stream. When a pulp component is supplied from a high-density storage tank, a series of controlled dilution steps and mixing stages are necessary to achieve a uniform consistency. Pulp components are usually metered into the machine stock chest at a consistency level between 2.8 and 3.2%. Operations such as deflaking and refining are usually carried out at intermediate consistency levels. For optimum response, the pulps should be individually refined, rather than refined as a blend.

Although batch systems of metering and blending are still being used for small specialty papermaking operations, the trend is toward continuous, automated systems. Typically, the various pulp and broke stocks are blended first, followed by addition of chemicals. The control principle is that component flows are rationed to an overall flow demand. The machine stock chest will usually contain the final mixture, although in some instances, small concentrations of additives may be added just prior to the headbox. The machine chest stock is usually circulated to a constant head tank (stuff box), which feeds the stock through a control valve (the basis weight valve) into the paper machine approach system. Here, the stock (usually at 2.6 to 2.8% consistencies) is combined with circulating white water from the wire pit, and the consistency is dramatically reduced to the level required at the headbox (usually between 0.5 and 1.0% consistency).

DISPERSION (REPULPING)
Dispersion (Repulping) can be, ascribed to any mechanical action that puts pulp fibers into slurry. The action of the pulper can be just adequate to enable the slurry to be pumped, or it can impart sufficient mechanical energy to totally disperse all the fibers. In batch pulpers, the defibering is usually completed within the single vessel. With continuous pulpers, it is more common to provide in line treatment following the pulper to complete the dispersion process; Typical devices for this purpose are called fiberizers, deflakers or dispergers (fine deflakers).

Lower no-load energy requirement. This advantage is becoming relatively more important as energy costs continue to rise. Higher stock consistency can be used.

Higher load can be applied (also greater rpm).

Greater versatility in tackle design. Experimentation in patterns and materials of, construction is ongoing. Self-correction of wear patterns. There is always a uniform mating of high and low spots, in contrast to the conical refiner.

More compact design. Less space is required.

Easier and lower maintenance (this claim is not well documented). Lower capital investment per ton of production.

In conventional pulp testing reports, the results obtained are generally presented as a function of beating time or freeness. However, in many cases, it may be more useful to evaluate an important property as a function of another relevant property for the product to be manufactured from the pulp. This technique is most effective where the properties vary in divergent directions with degree of refining. Common examples of paired properties are tearing as a function of tensile, tear as a function of sheet density, and porosity as a function of tensile. Where it is possible to carry out refining at two different extreme levels of refining intensity, two sets of beating curves can be generated to characterize the papermaking potential of a pulp over the complete range from gentle beating to harsh beating.