ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTATION & CONTROL SYSTEMS (WLE-306)

Presented by: Mr. Shahnawaz Uddin

Unit-4 MISCELLANEOUS INSTRUMENTS

Amplitude Distortion
Distortion is the alteration of the original shape (or other characteristic) of a signal, waveform, or other form of information Distortion is usually unwanted and in practice, many methods are employed to minimize it In signal processing, a noise-free system can be characterized by a transfer function, such that the output y(t) can be written as a function of the input x(t) as: y(t) = F(x(t)) When the transfer function comprises only a gain (A) and delay (T), then the output is undistorted
Distortion occurs when the transfer function F is more complicated than this, e.g., if F is a linear function of frequency (for instance a filter whose gain and/or delay varies with frequency), then the signal will experience linear distortion The linear distortion will not change the shape of a single sinuosoid, but will usually change the shape of a multi-tone signal
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Amplitude Distortion (-contd.)

Amplitude distortion is distortion occurring in a system, subsystem, or device when the output amplitude is not a linear function of the input amplitude For example, in case of a transistor, output is a linear function of input only for a fixed portion of the transfer characteristic, i.e., Ic = Ib When output is not in this portion, two forms of amplitude distortion might arise: (i) Harmonic Distortion, & (ii) Intermodulation Distortion (i) Harmonic distortion: The creation of harmonics of the fundamental frequency of a sinusoidal wave to a system (ii) Intermodulation distortion: This form of distortion occurs when two sinusoidal waves of frequencies f1 and f2 are present at the input, resulting in the creation of several other frequency components, whose frequencies include (f1 + f2 ), (f1 - f2 ), (2f1 - f2 ), (2f2 f1), and in general (mf1 nf2) for 4 integer m and n

Amplitude Distortion (-contd.)

Generally the strength of the unwanted output falls rapidly as m and n increase Amplitude distortion is measured with the system operating under steady-state conditions with a sinusoidal input signal When other frequencies are present, the term "amplitude" refers to the amplitude of fundamental frequency component only It can be shown mathematically (Fourier Series Analysis) that any complex waveform is made up of a fundamental frequency (f0) component and its harmonics (2f0, 3f0, 4f0, ) It is often desired to measure the amplitude of fundamental or each harmonic individually, and can be performed by instruments called wave analyzers Wave analyzers are also referred to as frequency selective voltmeters, carrier frequency voltmeters, or selective level voltmeters Some wave analyzers have the facility of automatic frequency 5 control, in which the tuning automatically locks to the signal

Amplitude Distortion (-contd.)

This makes it possible to measure the amplitude of signals that are drifting in frequency by amounts that would carry them outside the widest pass-band available Harmonic distortion analyzers measure the total harmonic content in the waveforms Harmonic distortion can be quantitatively measured very accurately with harmonic distortion analyzer, generally called a distortion analyzer The total harmonic distortion (THD) is given by

2 2 D2 D D 2 3 4 ...

where, D2, D3, D4, represent 2nd, 3rd, 4th, harmonics

The harmonic distortion analyzer measures the total harmonic distortion without individually the amplitude & frequency of each component These analyzers can be used along with a frequency generator or a source of white (or pseudo-random) noise to measure the frequency response of amplifiers, filters, etc. 6

Amplitude Distortion (-contd.)

Fig. (4.1) Graph of a Waveform and the distorted versions of the same waveform
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Basic Wave Analyzer

A basic wave analyzer is shown in fig. (9.1a), and consists of a primary detector (a simple LC circuit) This LC circuit is adjusted for resonance at the frequency of the particular harmonic component to be measured The intermediate stage is a full wave rectifier, to obtain the average value of the input signal The indicating device is a simple dc voltmeter that is calibrated to read the peak value of the sinusoidal input voltage Since, the LC circuit is tuned to a single frequency, it passes only the frequency to which it is tuned and rejects all other frequencies A number of tuned filters, connected to the indicating device through a selector switch, would be required for a Wave Analyzer
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Basic Wave Analyzer (-contd.)

Fig. (9.1a) Basic Wave Analyzer

Basic Wave Analyzer (-contd.)

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Frequency Selective Wave Analyzer

Wave analyzer (fig. 9.1b) consists of a very narrow pass-band filter section which can be tuned to a particular frequency within the audible frequency range (20 Hz -20 kHz) The complex wave to be analyzed is passed through an adjustable attenuator, which serves as a range multiplier and permits a large range of signal amplitudes to be analyzed without loading the amplifier The driver amplifier applies the attenuated input signal to a high-Q active filter (a low pass filter, which allows the selected frequency to pass and reject all others) The magnitude of this selected frequency is indicated by the meter and the filter section identifies the frequency of the component The filter circuit consists of a cascaded RC resonant circuits and amplifiers
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Frequency Selective Wave Analyzer (-contd.)

The capacitors are varied for range changing (i.e., coarse tuning) & the potentiometer is used to change the frequency within the selected pass-band (i.e., fine tuning), hence, this wave analyzer is also called a frequency selective voltmeter The selected signal output from the final amplifier stage is applied to the meter circuit & to an un-tuned buffer amplifier The main function of the buffer amplifier is to drive output devices, such as recorders or electronics counters The meter has several voltage ranges as well as decibel scales marked on it It is driven by an average reading rectifier type detector The bandwidth of the instrument is very narrow, typically about 1% of the selective band given in response characteristics (fig. 9.2)
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Frequency Selective Wave Analyzer (-contd.)

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Frequency Selective Wave Analyzer (-contd.)

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Heterodyne Wave Analyzer

The wave analyzers are useful for measurement in the audio frequency range only, i.e., for measurements in the RF range and above (MHz range), an ordinary wave analyzer cant be used Hence, special types of wave analyzers working on the principle of heterodyning (mixing) are used, which are known as Heterodyne wave analyzers In Heterodyne wave analyzer, the input signal to be analyzed is heterodyned with the signal from the internal tunable local oscillator in the mixer stage to produce a higher IF frequency By tuning the local oscillator frequency, various signal frequency components can be shifted within the pass-band of the IF amplifier The output of the IF amplifier is rectified and applied to the meter circuit An instrument that involves the principle of heterodyning is the Heterodyning tuned voltmeter (shown in fig. 9.3) The input signal is heterodyned to the known IF by means of a 15 tunable local oscillator

Heterodyne Wave Analyzer (-contd.)

The amplitude of the unknown component is indicated by the VTVM (Vacuum Tube Voltmeter) or output meter The frequency of the component is identified by the local oscillator frequency, i.e., the local oscillator frequency is varied so that all the components can be identified The fixed frequency amplifier is a multistage amplifier, which can be designed conveniently because of its frequency characteristics With the use of a suitable attenuator, a wide range of voltage amplitudes can be covered Their disadvantage is the occurrence of spurious cross-modulation products, setting a lower limit to the amplitude that can be measured

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Heterodyne Wave Analyzer (-contd.)

Two types of frequency-selective amplifiers find use in Heterodyne wave analyzers The first type employs a crystal filter (band-pass arrangement), having a center frequency of 50 kHz; another type uses a resonant circuit in which the effective Q has been made high and is controlled by negative feedback When a knowledge of the individual amplitudes of the component frequency is desired, a heterodyne wave analyzer is used A modified heterodyne wave analyzer is shown in fig. 9.4 In this analyzer, the attenuator provides the required input signal for heterodyning in the first mixer stage, with the signal from a local oscillator having a frequency of 30-48 MHz The first mixer stage produces an output which is the difference of the local oscillator frequency and the input signal, to produce an IF signal of 30 MHz
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Heterodyne Wave Analyzer (-contd.)

This IF frequency is uniformly amplified by the IF amplifier This amplified IF signal is fed to the second mixer stage, where it is again heterodyned to produce a difference frequency or IF of zero frequency The selected component is then passed to the meter amplifier and detector circuit through an active filter having a controlled bandwidth The meter detector output can then be read off on a db-calibrated scale, or may be applied to a secondary device such as a recorder This wave analyzer is operated in the RF range of 10 kHz -18 MHz with 18 overlapping bands selected by the frequency range control of the local oscillator The bandwidth, which is controlled by the active filter, can be selected at 200 Hz, 1 kHz, and 3 kHz
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Heterodyne Wave Analyzer (-contd.)

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Heterodyne Wave Analyzer (-contd.)

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Harmonic Distortion Analyzer

Fundamental Suppression Type: Distortion analyzer measures the total harmonic power present in the test wave rather than the distortion caused by each component The simplest method to suppress the fundamental frequency by means of a high pass filter whose cut-off frequency is a little above the fundamental frequency Thus, the high pass filter allows only the harmonics to pass and the total harmonic distortion (THD) can then be measured The most commonly used harmonic distortion analyzers based on fundamental suppression are as follow: (i) Employing a Resonance Bridge, (ii) Wien's Bridge Method (iii) Bridged T -Network Method

(i) Employing a Resonance Bridge: The bridge, shown in fig. (9.5), is balanced for the fundamental frequency, i.e., L & C are tuned to the fundamental frequency
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Harmonic Distortion Analyzer (-contd.)

The bridge is unbalanced for the harmonics, i.e., only harmonic power will be available at the output terminal and can be measured If the fundamental frequency is changed, the bridge must be balanced again by varying L & C If L & C are fixed components, then this method is suitable only when the test wave has a fixed frequency Indicators can be thermocouples or square law VTVMs (Vacuum Tube Volte Meters), which indicate the rms value of all harmonics When a continuous adjustment of the fundamental frequency is desired, a Wien bridge arrangement is used (shown in fig. 9.6) (ii) Wien's Bridge Method: The bridge is balanced for the fundamental frequency, therefore, fundamental energy is dissipated in the bridge circuit elements Only the harmonic components reach the output terminals
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Harmonic Distortion Analyzer (-contd.)

The harmonic distortion output can then be measured with a meter For balance at the fundamental frequency: C1 = C2 = C, R1 = R2 = R, R3 = 2R4
(iii) Bridged T -Network Method: As shown in fig. (9.7), L & C's are tuned to the fundamental frequency, and R is adjusted to bypass fundamental frequency The tank circuit being tuned to the fundamental frequency, the fundamental energy will circulate in the tank and is bypassed by the resistance Only harmonic components will reach the output terminals and the distorted output can be measured by the meter The Q of the resonant circuit must be at least 3-5 One method of using a bridge T-network is given in fig. (9.8) The switch S is first connected to point A so that the attenuator is excluded and the bridge T-network is adjusted for full suppression of 23 the fundamental frequency, i.e., minimum output

Harmonic Distortion Analyzer (-contd.)

Minimum output indicates that the bridged T-network is tuned to the fundamental frequency & fundamental frequency is fully suppressed The switch is next connected to terminal B, i.e. the bridged T-network is excluded Attenuation is adjusted until the same reading is obtained on the meter The attenuator reading indicates the total rms distortion
Note: Distortion measurement can also be obtained by means of a wave analyzer; knowing the amplitude & frequency of each component; the harmonic distortion can be calculated However, distortion meters based on fundamental suppression are simpler to design and less expensive than wave analyzers The disadvantage with the harmonic distortion analyzers is that they give only the total distortion and not the amplitude of individual distortion components 24

Harmonic Distortion Analyzer (-contd.)

Fig. (9.5) Resonance Bridge

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Harmonic Distortion Analyzer (-contd.)

Fig. (9.6) Wiens Bridge Method

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Harmonic Distortion Analyzer (-contd.)

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Harmonic Distortion Analyzer (-contd.)

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Spectrum Analyzer
The most common way of observing signals is to display them on an oscilloscope, with time on the x-axis (i.e., amplitude of the signal versus time) It is also useful to display signals in the frequency domain; the instrument providing this frequency domain view is the spectrum analyzer A spectrum analyzer provides a calibrated graphical display on its CRT, with frequency on the horizontal axis and amplitude (voltage) on the vertical axis Displayed as vertical lines against these coordinates are sinusoidal components of which the input signal is composed The height represents the absolute magnitude, and the horizontal location represents the frequency These instruments provide a display of the frequency spectrum over given frequency band Spectrum analyzers use either (i) a parallel filter bank, or (ii) a 29 swept frequency technique

Spectrum Analyzer (-contd.)

(i) Spectrum Analyzer using Parallel Filter Bank: In a parallel filter bank analyzer, the frequency range is covered by a series of filters whose central frequencies and bandwidths are so selected that they overlap each other (as shown in Fig. 9.9a) Typically, an audio analyzer will have 32 of these filters, each covering one third of an octave For wide band narrow resolution analysis, particularly at RF or microwave signals, the swept technique is preferred (ii) Spectrum Analyzer using Swept Receiver Design: As shown in fig. (9.9b), the sawtooth generator provides the sawtooth voltage which drives the horizontal axis element of the scope and this sawtooth voltage is frequency controlled element of the voltage tuned oscillator As the oscillator sweeps from fmin to fmax of its frequency band at a linear recurring rate, it beats with the frequency component of the input signal & produces an IF, whenever a frequency component is met during its 30 sweep

Spectrum Analyzer (-contd.)

The IF corresponding to the frequency component is amplified and detected if necessary, and then applied to the vertical plates of the CRO, producing a display of amplitude versus frequency One of the principal applications of spectrum analyzers has been in the study of the RF spectrum produced in microwave instruments In a microwave instrument, the horizontal axis can display a wide range (2-3 GHz) for a broad survey and a narrow range (30 kHz) as well for a highly magnified view of any small portion of the spectrum Signals at microwave frequency separated by only a few kHz can be seen individually The basic block diagram of an RF spectrum analyzer (fig. 9.13) covers the range 500 kHz to 1 GHz, which is representative of a super-heterodyne type The input signal is fed into a mixer which is driven by a local oscillator (which is linearly tunable electrically over the range 2-3 GHz)
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Spectrum Analyzer (-contd.)

The mixer provides two signals at its output that are proportional in amplitude to the input signal but of frequencies which are the sum and difference of the input signal & local oscillator frequency The IF amplifier is tuned to a narrow band around 2 GHz, since the local oscillator is tuned over the range of 2-3 GHz, only the inputs that are separated from the local oscillator frequency by 2 GHz will be converted to IF frequency band, pass through the IF frequency amplifier, get rectified & produce a vertical deflection on the CRT From this, it is observed that as the sawtooth signal sweeps, the local oscillator also sweeps linearly from 2-3 GHz The tuning of the spectrum analyzer is a swept receiver, which sweeps linearly from 0 to 1 GHz The sawtooth scanning signal is also applied to the horizontal plates of the CRT to form the frequency axis Spectrum analyzers are widely used in radars, oceanography, and bio-medical fields
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Spectrum Analyzer (-contd.)

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Basic Spectrum Analyzer Using Swept Receiver Design

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Basic Spectrum Analyzer Using Swept Receiver Design

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Basic Spectrum Analyzer Using Swept Receiver Design

Fig. (9.12) Test Waveform as seen on X-axis (time) & Z-axis (frequency)

Fig. (9.13) RF Spectrum Analyzer

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Q-METER
The overall efficiency of coils and capacitors intended for RF applications is best evaluated using the Q-value The Q-meter is an instrument designed to measure some electrical properties of coils and capacitors The principle of Q-meter is based on series resonance; the voltage drop across the coil or capacitor is Q-times the applied voltage (where Q is the ratio of reactance to resistance, XL/R) If a fixed voltage is applied to the circuit, a voltmeter across the capacitor can be calibrated to read Q directly At resonance XL = XC and EL = I XL , EC = I XC , E = IR
Therefore, Q X L XC EC

From the above equation, if E is kept constant, the voltage across the capacitor can be measured by a voltmeter calibrated to read directly in terms of Q
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Q-METER (-contd.)
A practical Q-meter circuit is shown in fig.(10.7) The wide range oscillator, with frequency range from 50 kHz to 50 MHz, delivers a current to the shunt resistance (Rsh) having a value of 0.02 Rsh introduces almost no resistance into the tank circuit and therefore, represents a voltage source of magnitude e with a small internal resistance The voltage across the capacitor is measured by an electronic voltmeter corresponding to EC and calibrated directly to read Q The circuit is tuned to resonance by varying C until the electronic voltmeter reads the maximum value The resonance output voltage E, corresponding to EC , is E = Q x e That is, Q = E/e Since, e is known, the electronic voltmeter can be calibrated to read Q directly The inductance of the coil can be determined by connecting it to the test terminals of the instrument
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Q-METER (-contd.)
The circuit is tuned to resonance by varying either the capacitance or the oscillator frequency If the capacitance is varied, the oscillator frequency is set to a given frequency & resonance is obtained If the capacitance is preset to a desired value, the oscillator frequency is varied until resonance occurs The inductance of the coil can be calculated from known values of the resonant frequency & resonating capacitor (C)

XL XC ,

1 f , 2 LC

or

1 L (2f ) 2 C

The Q indicated is not the actual Q, because the losses of the resonating capacitor, voltmeter and inserted resistance are all included in the measuring circuit The actual Q of the measured coil is somewhat greater than the indicated Q This difference is negligible except where the resistance of the coil is relatively small compared to the inserted resistance Rsh 39

Q-METER (-contd.)

Fig. (10.7) Circuit Diagram of a Q-meter

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Q-METER (-contd.)
Factors Causing Error during Q-measurement: (1) At high frequencies the electronic voltmeter may suffer from losses due to the transit time effect The effect of Rsh is to introduce an additional resistance in the tank circuit, as shown in fig. (10.8)

Q act

L R

and

Q obs

L R R sh

Q act R R sh R sh 1 Q obs R R Q act R sh Q obs (1 ) R

Hence,

To make the Qobs value as close as possible to Qact , Rsh should be made as small as possible (Rsh value of 0.02-0.04 introduces negligible error) (2) Another source of error, and probably the most important one, is the distributed capacitance or self capacitance of the measuring circuit 41

Q-METER (-contd.)

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Q-METER (-contd.)
The presence of distributed or stray capacitances modifies the actual Q and the inductance of the coil At the resonant frequency, at which the self capacitance and inductance of the coil are equal, the circuit impedance is purely resistive; this characteristic can be used to measure the distributed capacitance One of the simplest methods of determining the distributed capacitance (Cs) of a coil involves the plotting of a graph of 1/f2 against C (in pF) as shown in fig. (10.9a) The frequency of the oscillator in the Q meter is varied and the corresponding value of C for resonance is noted The straight line produced to intercept the x-axis gives the value of Cs

Slope L , 2 4 and If

therefore , Slope 4 2 L or 1 2 4 L( C C s ) 2 f
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1 f , 2 L( C C s ) 1 0, 2 f then

C Cs

Q-METER (-contd.)
The value of unknown can also be determined from the above equation Another method of determining the stray or distributed capacitance (Cs) of a coil involves making two measurements at different frequencies The capacitor C of the Q-meter is calibrated to indicate the capacitance value The test coil is connected to the Q-meter terminals as shown in fig.(10.9b) The tuning capacitor is set to a high value position (to its maximum) and the circuit is resonated by varying the oscillator frequency Suppose the meter indicates resonance & the oscillator frequency is found to be f1 & the capacitance value to be C1 The oscillator frequency of the Q-meter is now increased to twice the original frequency, i.e., f2 = 2f1 , and the capacitor is varied until resonance occurs at C2
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Q-METER (-contd.)
The resonant frequency of an LC circuit is given by

1 f 2 LC

Therefore, for the initial resonance condition, the total capacitance of the circuit is (C1+ Cs) and the resonant frequency is given by

1 f1 2 L(C1 Cs )

After the oscillator and the tuning capacitor are varied for the new value of resonance, the capacitance is (C2 + Cs), therefore,

1 f2 2 L(C2 Cs )

But f2 = 2f1 , therefore, Hence,

1 1 2 2 L(C2 Cs ) 2 L(C1 Cs )
C1 4C2 Cs 3

C1 + Cs = 4 (C2 + Cs)

The distributed capacitance can be calculated using the above equation 45

Q-METER (-contd.)

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Examples
Ex. 10.1: The self capacitance of a coil is measured by using the outlined in the previous section. The first measurement is at f 1=1 MHz & C1=500 pF. The second measurement is at f2=2 MHz & C2=110 pF. Find the distributed capacitance. Also calculate the value L. (Ans. 20 pF, 48.712 H)
Ex. 10.2: Calculate the value of the self capacitance when the following measurements are performed: f1=2 MHz & C1=500 pF f2=6 MHz & C2=50 pF (Ans. 6.25 pF)

Problem-1: The distributed capacitance was found to be 20 pF by use of a Q-meter. The first resonance occurred at C1=300 pF & f1 was half the second resonance frequency. Determine the value of f2 at the second resonance (given L=40 H) (Ans. 2.8 MHz) 47

Electroencephalogram (EEG)
An electroencephalogram (EEG) is a test that measures and records the electrical activity of the brain Special sensors (electrodes) are attached to your head and hooked by wires to a computer The computer records your brain's electrical activity on the screen or on paper as wavy lines Certain conditions, such as seizures, can be seen by the changes in the normal pattern of the brain's electrical activity EEG may be done to: Diagnose epilepsy and see what type of seizures are occurring Check for problems with loss of consciousness or dementia Find out if a person who is in a coma is brain-dead Study sleep disorders, such as narcolepsy

Watch brain activity while a person is receiving general anesthesia during brain surgery

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EEG (-contd.)
Help find out if a person has a physical problem (problems in the brain, spinal cord, or nervous system) or a mental health problem How EEG is Done? The EEG record is read by a doctor who is specially trained to diagnose and treat disorders affecting the nervous system (neurologist) You will be asked to lie on your back on a bed or table or relax in a chair with your eyes closed The EEG technologist will attach 10 to 20 flat metal discs (electrodes) to different places on your head, using a sticky electrolyte paste or jelly to hold the electrodes in place (A cap with fixed electrodes may be placed on your head instead of individual electrodes) The electrodes are hooked by wires to an EEG machine that records the brain activity drawn by a row of pens on a moving piece of paper or as an image on the computer screen
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EEG (-contd.)
You may be asked to breathe deeply and rapidly (hyperventilate), usually 20 breaths a minute for 3 minutes You may be asked to look at a bright, flashing light called a strobe (photic or stroboscopic stimulation) Results: There are several types of brain waves: Alpha Waves have a frequency of 8 to 12 cycles per second. Alpha waves are present only in the waking state when your eyes are closed but you are mentally alert. Alpha waves go away when your eyes are open or you are concentrating. Beta Waves have a frequency of 13 to 30 cycles per second. These waves are normally found when you are alert or have taken high doses of certain medicines, such as benzodiazepines. Delta Waves have a frequency of less than 3 cycles per second. These waves are normally found only when you are asleep or in young children. Theta Waves have a frequency of 4 to 7 cycles per second. These waves are seen in drowsiness or arousal in older children and adults; it can also be seen in meditation 50

Fig. (1) The cerebrum contains the frontal, parietal, temporal and occipital lobes
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Fig. (2) The 1020 electrode system for measuring the EEG
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Fig. (3) A man undergoing an EEG, wearing a cap equipped with electrodes
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Fig. 4(a) Four types of EEG waves

Fig. 4(b) When the eyes are opened, alpha waves disappear
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Electroencephalogram (EEG)
Normal In adults who are awake, the EEG shows mostly alpha waves and beta waves. The two sides of the brain show similar patterns of electrical activity. There are no abnormal bursts of electrical activity and no slow brain waves on the EEG tracing. If flashing lights (photic stimulation) are used during the test, one area of the brain (the occipital region) may have a brief response after each flash of light, but the brain waves are normal. Abnormal The two sides of the brain show different patterns of electrical activity. This may mean a problem in one area or side of the brain is present. The EEG shows sudden bursts of electrical activity (spikes) or sudden slowing of brain waves in the brain. These changes may be caused by a brain tumor, infection, injury, stroke, or epilepsy.
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Electroencephalogram (EEG)
Abnormal The EEG records changes in the brain waves that may not be in just one area of the brain. A problem affecting the entire brainsuch as drug intoxication, infections (encephalitis), or metabolic disorders (such as diabetic ketoacidosis) that change the chemical balance in the body, including the brain-may cause these kinds of changes.

The EEG shows delta waves or too many theta waves in adults who are awake. These results may mean brain injury or a brain illness is present. Some medicines can also cause this.
The EEG shows no electrical activity in the brain (a "flat" or "straight-line" EEG). This means that brain function has stopped, which is usually caused by lack of oxygen or blood flow inside the brain. This may happen when a person has been in a coma. In some cases, severe drug-induced sedation can cause a flat EEG.
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EEG (-contd.)
What factors may affect the EEG Test? Reasons why the results may not be helpful include: (i) Moving too much (ii) Taking some medicines, such as those used to treat seizures (antiepileptic medicines) or sedatives, tranquilizers, and barbiturates (iii) Being unconscious from severe drug poisoning or a very low body temperature (hypothermia) (iv) Having hair that is dirty, oily, or covered with hairspray or other hair preparations. This can cause a problem with the placement of the electrodes.

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Electrocardiography
An electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG) is an electrical recording of the heart activity over time and is used in the investigation of heart disease

British physiologist Augustus D. Waller was the pioneer of electrocardiography and in 1887 published the first human electrocardiogram
In 1903 Dutch physiologist, Willem Einthoven, transformed this curious physiologic phenomenon into an indispensable clinical recording device that is still used today ECG is a surface measurement of the electrical potential generated by electrical activity in cardiac tissue The human heart can be considered as a large muscle whose beating is simply a muscular contraction which develops a potential to be measured in the form of ECG
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Fig. (1)

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Electrocardiography (-contd.)

Three Leeds of ECG: The differential potential is measured between the right and left arm, between the right arm and the left leg and between left arm and left leg These three measurements are referred to as leads I, II, III respectively The signal from the body is being amplified because the signals from the body are small and weak, ranging from 0.5 mV to 5.0 mV Signals are filtered to remove the noise, then after digital conversion through ADC the digital signal is sent to computer

Fig. (2)

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Electrocardiography (-contd.)
Resistors and switch Amp ADC

RA

LA

Monitor RL LL Printer

Signal processor

Storage

Fig. (3) Block diagram of an electrocardiograph. The normal locations for surface electrodes are right arm (RA), right leg (RL), left arm (LA), and left leg (LL). Physicians usually attach several electrodes on the chest of the patients as well.
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Electrocardiography (-contd.)

Fig. (4) Schematic representation of normal ECG

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Types of ECG Recordings

Bipolar Leads record voltage between electrodes placed on wrists & legs (right leg is grounded) Lead I records between right arm & left arm Lead II: right arm & left leg Lead III: left arm & left leg

Fig. (5)

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I II III 0

Fig. (6) Einthovens triangle. Lead I is from RA to LA, lead II is from RA to LL, and lead III is from LA to LL. 64

Causes of Cardiac Cycle

3 distinct waves are produced during cardiac cycle P wave caused by atrial depolarization QRS complex caused by ventricular depolarization T wave results from ventricular repolarization

Fig. (7)

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Elements of the ECG

P wave: (Depolarization of both atria) Relationship between P and QRS helps distinguish various cardiac arrhythmias Shape and duration of P may indicate atrial enlargement PR interval: (from onset of P wave to onset of QRS) Normal duration = 0.12 0.2 sec

Represents atria to ventricular conduction time (through His bundle)

Prolonged PR interval may indicate a 1st degree heart block QRS complex: (Ventricular depolarization) Larger than P wave because of greater muscle mass of ventricles Normal duration = 0.08 - 0.12 sec
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Elements of the ECG (-contd.)

Its duration, amplitude, and morphology are useful in diagnosing cardiac arrhythmia, ventricular hypertrophy, Myocardial Infarction (MI), electrolyte derangement, etc. Q wave greater than 1/3 the height of the R wave, greater than 0.04 sec are abnormal and may represent MI ST segment: Connects the QRS complex and T wave Duration of 0.08-0.12 sec T wave: Represents repolarization or recovery of ventricles Interval from beginning of QRS to apex of T is referred to as the absolute refractory period QT Interval: Measured from beginning of QRS to the end of the T wave Normal QT is usually about 0.40 sec QT interval varies based on heart rate
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Fig. (8)
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Ultrasound System
Ultrasound is one of the most widely used modalities in medical imaging, which is regularly used in cardiology, obstetrics, gynaecology, abdominal imaging, etc. Mostly, it is used in non-invasive techniques, although an invasive technique like intra-vascular imaging is also possible Ultrasound systems are signal processing intensive with various imaging modalities and different processing requirements in each modality, digital signal processors (DSP) are finding increasing use in such systems The advent of low power system-on-chip (SoC) with DSP and RISC processors is providing portable and low cost systems without compromising the image quality necessary for clinical applications The term ultrasound refers to frequencies that are greater than 20 kHz, which is commonly accepted to be the upper frequency limit the human ear can hear Typically, ultrasound systems operate in the 2 MHz to 20 MHz frequency range, although some systems are approaching 40 MHz for harmonic imaging 69

Ultrasound System: Basic Functionality

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Ultrasound System: Basic Functionality

Fig.(1 ) shows the basic functionality of an ultrasound system, which demonstrates how transducers focus sound waves along scan lines in the region of interest In principle, the ultrasound system focuses sound waves along a given scan line so that the waves constructively add together at the desired focal point As the sound waves propagate towards the focal point, they reflect off on any object they encounter along their propagation path Once all of the sound waves along the given scan line have been measured, the ultrasound system focuses along a new scan line until all of the scan lines in the desired region of interest have been measured To focus the sound waves towards a particular focal point, a set of transducer elements are energized with a set of time-delayed pulses to produce a set of sound waves that propagate through the region of interest, which is typically the desired organ and the surrounding 71 tissue

Ultrasound System: Basic Functionality

This process of using multiple sound waves to steer and focus a beam of sound is commonly referred to as beam-forming Once the transducers have generated their respective sound waves, they become sensors that detect any reflected sound waves that are created when the transmitted sound waves encounter a change in tissue density within the region of interest By properly time delaying the pulses to each active transducer, the resulting time-delayed sound waves meet at the desired focal point that resides at a pre-computed depth along a known scan line The amplitude of the reflected sound waves forms the basis for the ultrasound image at this focal point location Envelope detection is used to detect the peaks in the received signal and then log compression is used to reduce the dynamic range of the received signals for efficient display and can be 72 analysed by the doctor or technician

Ultrasound System: System Components

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Ultrasound System: System Components

The beam-former control unit, as shown in Fig. (2), is responsible for synchronizing the generation of the sound waves and the reflected wave measurements The controller knows the region of interest in terms of width and depth and gets translated into a desired number of scan lines and a desired number of focal points per scan line The beam-former controller begins with the first scan line and excites an array of piezo-electric transducers with a sequence of high-voltage pulses (of the order 100 V & 2 A) via transmit amplifiers The pulses go through a Tx/Rx switch, which prevents the highvoltage pulses from damaging the receive electronics Note that these high-voltage pulses have been properly time delayed so that the resulting sound waves can be focused along the desired scan line to produce a narrowly focused beam at the desired focal point
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Ultrasound System: System Components

The beam-former controller determines which transducer elements to energize at a given time and the proper time delay value for each element to properly steer the sound waves towards the desired focal point As the sound waves propagate toward the desired focal point, they migrate through materials with different densities; with each change in density, the sound wave has a slight change in direction & produces a reflected sound wave Some of the reflected sound waves propagate back to the transducer & form the input to the piezo-electric elements in the transducer The resulting low voltage signals are scaled using a variable controlled amplifier (VCA) before being sampled by ADCs The VCA is configured so that the gain profile being applied to the received signal is a function of the sample time since the signal strength decreases with time (e.g., it has travelled through more tissue) 75

Ultrasound System: System Components

The number of VCA and ADC combinations determines the number of active channels used for beam-forming It is usual to run the ADC sampling rate 4 times or higher than the transducer centre frequency Once the received signals reach the Rx beam-former, the signals are scaled and appropriately delayed to permit a coherent summation of the signals This new signal represents the beam-formed signal for one or more focal points along a particular specific scan line Once the data is beam-formed, depending on the imaging modes, various processings are carried out, e.g., it is common to run the beam-formed data through various filtering operation to reduce out band noise In B (Brightness) mode, demodulation followed by envelope detection and log compression is the most common practice
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Ultrasound System: System Components

Several 2D noise reduction and image enhancement functions are also performed in this mode In spectral mode, a windowed Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) is performed on the demodulated signal & displayed separately It is also common to present the data on a speaker after separation of forward and reverse flow In these systems, a repeated set of pulse is sent through the transducer In between the pulses, the received signal is recorded There is an alternate mode where a continuous pulse sets are transmitted, which are known as continuous wave (CW) systems These systems are used where a more accurate measurement of velocity information is desired using Doppler techniques The disadvantage of this system is that it loses the ability to localize the velocity information 77

Ultrasound System: System Components

In these systems, a separate set of transducers are used for transmission and reception Due to large immediate reflection from the surface of the transducer, the dynamic range requirement becomes very high to use ADC to digitize the reflected ultrasound signal and maintain enough signal to noise (SNR) for estimating the velocity information Therefore, an analog beam-forming is usually used for CW systems followed by analog demodulation Such systems can then use lower sampling rate (usually in kHz range) ADCs with higher dynamic range

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Ultrasound System: System Components

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Ultrasound System: Imaging Modes

A-mode (Amplitude) Imaging: It displays the amplitude of a sampled voltage signal for a single sound wave as a function of time This mode is considered 1D and used to measure the distance between two objects by dividing the speed of sound by half of the measured time between the peaks in the A-mode plot, which represents the two objects in question This mode is no longer used in ultrasound systems B-mode (Brightness) Imaging: It is the same as A-mode, except that brightness is used to represent the amplitude of the sampled signal B-mode imaging is performed by sweeping the transmitted sound wave over the plane to produce a 2D image Typically, multiple sets of pulses are generated to produce sound waves for each scan line, each set of pulses are intended for a 80 unique focal point along the scan line

Ultrasound System: Imaging Modes

CW (Continuous Wave) Doppler: In this mode, a sound wave at a single frequency is continuously transmitted from one piezo-electric element and a second piezoelectric element is used to continuously record the reflected sound wave By continuously recording the received signal, there is no aliasing in the received signal Using this signal, the blood flow in veins can be estimated using the Doppler frequency However, since the sensor is continuously receiving data from various depths, the velocity location cannot be determined PW (Pulse Wave) Doppler: For this several pulses are transmitted along each scan line and the Doppler frequency is estimated from the relative time between the received signals Since pulses are used for the signaling, the velocity location can 81 also be determined

Ultrasound System: Imaging Modes

Color Doppler: For this, the PW Doppler is used to create a color image that is superimposed on top of B-mode image A color code is used to denote the direction and magnitude of the flow, e.g., red typically denotes flow towards the transducer and blue denotes flow away from it A darker color usually denotes a larger magnitude while a lighter color denotes a smaller magnitude Power Doppler: In this, instead of estimating the actual velocity of the motion, the strength or the power of the motion is estimated and displayed It is useful to display small motion and there is no directional information in this measurement Spectral Doppler: It shows the spectrum of the measured velocity in a time varying manner Both PW & CW Doppler systems are capable of showing spectral 82 Doppler

Ultrasound System: Imaging Modes

M-mode: This display refers to scanning a single line in the object and then displaying the resulting amplitudes successively, which shows the movement of a structure such as a heart Because of its high pulse frequency (up to 1000 pulses per second), this is useful in assessing rates and motion and is still used extensively in cardiac and fetal cardiac imaging Harmonic Imaging: It is a new modality where the B-mode imaging is performed on the second (or possibly other) harmonics of the imaging Due to the usual high frequency of the harmonic, these images have higher resolution than conventional imaging, however, due to higher loss, the depth of imaging is limited Some modern ultrasound systems switch between harmonic and conventional imaging based on depth of scanning
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Ultrasound System: Imaging Modes

This system imposes stringent linearity requirements on the signal chain components Elasticity/Strain Imaging: It is a new modality where some measures of elasticity (like Youngs modulus) of the tissue (usually under compression) is estimated and displayed as an image These types of imaging have been shown to be able to distinguish between normal and malignant tissues This is currently a very active area of research both on clinical applications and in real-time system implementation

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Basic Ultrasound Machine

Basic Ultrasound Machine Components: Central Processing Unit (CPU) Transducer probe Transducer Pulse Controls Display Keyboard/Cursor Disk Storage Printers

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What is an EEG?
An electroencephalogram is a measure of the brain's voltage fluctuations as detected from the electrodes. It is an approximation of the cumulative electrical activity of neurons. Background
1875 - Richard Caton discovered electrical properties of exposed cerebral hemispheres of rabbits and monkeys. 1924 - German Psychiatrist Hans Berger discovered alpha waves in humans and coined the term electroencephalogram 1950s - Walter Grey Walter developed EEG topography - mapping electrical activity of the brain.

Human Brain
Frontal Lobes Personality, emotions, problem solving. Parietal lobes Cognition, spatial relationships and mathematical abilities, nonverbal memory. Occipital lobes Vision, color, shape and movement. Temporal lobes Speech and auditory processing, language comprehension, long-term memory.

Different waves in EEG

Slowest but highest amplitude waves, deepest stages of sleep it tends to appear during drowsy, meditative, or sleeping states. Predominantly originates From occipital lobe during wakeful relaxation with closed eyes. associated with active, busy, or anxious thinking and active concentration.

relate to neural consciousness via the mechanism for conscious attention

Problems with EEG

Electrical activity generated by complex system of billions of neurons. Difficult to register electrode location. Artifacts from motion, eye blinks, swallows, heart beat, sweating Food, age, time of day, fatigue, motivation of subject. Advantages of EEG
Many EEG studies have reported reproducible changes in brain dynamics that are task dependent! People are able to control their brainwaves via biofeedback!

Fig. Basic structure of the heart. RA is the right atrium, RV is the right ventricle; LA is the left atrium, and LV is the left ventricle. Basic pacing rates are also shown. 90