Intelligence

Introduction

Intelligence
Intelligence has been defined in different ways, including the abilities for abstract thought, understanding, communication, reasoning, learning, planning, emotional intelligence and problem solving. Within the discipline of psychology, various approaches to human intelligence have been adopted. The psychometric approach is especially familiar to the general public, as well as being the most researched and by far the most widely used in practical settings.

History of Intelligence
Intelligence derives from the Latin verb intelligere which derives from interlegere meaning to "pick out" or discern. A form of this verb, intellects , became the medieval technical term for understanding, and a translation for the Greek philosophical term nous.

Definition 1
From "Mainstream Science on Intelligence" (1994), an editorial statement by fifty-two researchers.
A very general mental capability that, among other things, involves the ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, learn quickly and learn from experience. It is not merely book learning, a narrow academic skill, or test-taking smarts. Rather, it reflects a broader and deeper capability for comprehending our surroundings. "catching on," "making sense" of things, or "figuring out" what to do.

Definition 2
from "Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns" (1995), a report published by the Board of Scientific Affairs of the American Psychological Association: Individuals differ from one another in their ability to understand complex ideas, to adapt effectively to the environment, to learn from experience, to engage in various forms of reasoning, to overcome obstacles by taking thought.

Definitions
Although these individual differences can be substantial, they are never entirely consistent: a given person's intellectual performance will vary on different occasions, in different domains, as judged by different criteria. Concepts of "intelligence" are attempts to clarify and organize this complex set of phenomena. Although considerable clarity has been achieved in some areas, no such conceptualization has yet answered all the important questions, and none commands universal assent.

Definitions
Indeed, when two dozen prominent theorists were recently asked to define intelligence, they gave two dozen, somewhat different, Definitions. Besides the foregoing definitions, these psychology and learning researchers also have defined intelligence as:

Definitions
Recent decades have seen the rise of new analytically, mathematically and computationally rigorous techniques, such as agentbas ed modeling and social network analysis. Sociology should not be confused with various general social studies courses which bear little relation to sociological theory or social science research methodology.

Definitions
Alfred Binet: Judgment, otherwise called
"good sense," "practical sense," "initiative," the faculty of adapting one's self to circumstances ... auto-critique.

David Wechsler: The aggregate or global

capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his environment.

Definitions
Lloyd Humphreys : The resultant of the process of acquiring, storing in memory, retrieving, combining, comparing, and using in new contexts information and conceptual skills.". Cyril Burt: Innate general cognitive ability. Howard Gardner: To my mind, a human intellectual competence must entail a set of skills of problem solving enabling the individual to resolve genuine problems or difficulties that he or she encounters and, when appropriate, to create an effective product, and must also entail the potential for finding or creating problems, and thereby laying the groundwork for the acquisition of new knowledge.

Definitions
Linda Gottfredson : The ability to deal with cognitive complexity. Sternberg & Salter : Goal-directed adaptive behavior. Reuven Feuerstein : The theory of Structural Cognitive Modifiability describes intelligence as "the unique propensity of human beings to change or modify the structure of their cognitive functioning to adapt to the changing demands of a life situation."

Psychometrics
.

Psychometrics
The approach to understanding intelligence with the most supporters and published research over the longest period of time is based on psychometric testing. It is also by far the most widely used in practical settings.

Psychometrics
Intelligence quotient (IQ) tests include the Stanford-Binet, Raven's Progressive Matrices, the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale and the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children. There are also psychometric tests that are not intended to measure intelligence itself but some closely related construct such as scholastic aptitude.

Psychometrics
There are many different kinds of IQ tests using a wide variety of test tasks. Some tests consist of a single type of task, others rely on a broad collection of tasks with different contents (visualspatial, verbal, numerical) and asking for different cognitive processes (e.g., reasoning, memory, rapid decisions, visual comparisons, spatial imagery, reading, and retrieval of general knowledge). .

g for "general intelligence factor

The psychologist Charles Spearman early in the 20th century carried out the first formal factor analysis of correlations between various test tasks. He found a trend for all such tests to correlate positively with each other, which is called a positive manifold. Spearman found that a single common factor explained the positive correlations among test known as g general intelligence factor.

Theory of Charles Spearman

He interpreted it as the core of human intelligence that, to a larger or smaller degree, influences success in all cognitive tasks and thereby creates the positive manifold. This interpretation of g as a common cause of test performance is still dominant in psychometrics.

Theory of Van der Maas and colleagues

An alternative interpretation was recently advanced by van der Maas and colleagues. Their mutualism model assumes that intelligence depends on several independent mechanisms, none of which influences performance on all cognitive tests. These mechanisms support each other so that efficient operation of one of them makes efficient operation of the others more likely, thereby creating the positive manifold.

Cattell-Horn-Carroll theory
Many of the broad, recent IQ tests have been greatly influenced by the Cattell-Horn-Carroll theory. It is argued to reflect much of what is known about intelligence from research. A hierarchy of factors is used. g is at the top. Under it there are 10 broad abilities that in turn are subdivided into 70 narrow abilities. The broad abilities are.

Cattell-Horn-Carroll theory
Fluid Intelligence (Gf): includes the broad ability to reason, form concepts, and solve problems using unfamiliar information or novel procedures. Crystallized Intelligence (Gc): includes the breadth and depth of a person's acquired knowledge, the ability to communicate one's knowledge, and the ability to reason using previously learned experiences or procedures.

Mental Age and Intelligence Quotient

The raw score obtained from intelligence test is simply the number of test items, the subject is able to pass. As with other tests, so here, the raw score is practically meaningless and must be converted into some form that will show how the subject compares with other individuals. Binet introduced the very convenient measure known as mental age (MA).

Mental Age (MA)

Age norms are established by testing large sample of eight year children is the eightyears norms. The norms increase year by year. Mental age is a measure of the individuals level of intelligence at a given time.

Chronological age
Chronological age counted from birth, abbreviated (CA). Intelligence Quotient is the ratio of metal age divide by chronological age. IQ = MA / CA

Intelligence Quotient
With MA 8 Years and CA 12 years, a childs IQ is 8/12 or .67: Another child with the same MA but a CA of only 5 years has the much higher IQ of 8/5 or 1.60. The exactly average child of any age has an IQ of 1.00, because his MA is just up to the norm for his own age. Level of Intelligence A Child with an IQ of over 100is above the exact average for his age, and one with an IQ under 100 is below the exact average.

Distribution of IQ Values
IQ Over 140 130 139 120 - 129 10 - 119 100- 109 90 - 99 80 - 89 70 - 79 60 - 69 below 60 Percent of the Population 1 2 8 16 23 23 16 8 2 1 Remarks Genius Very superior

Superior
average dull average borderline mentally deficient

Emotional Intelligence

Emotional intelligence (EI) refers to the ability to perceive, control and evaluate emotions. Some researchers suggest that emotional intelligence can be learned and strengthened, while others claim it is an inborn characteristic.

Peter Salovey and John D Mayer

Mayer have been the leading researchers on emotional intelligence. In their influential article "Emotional Intelligence," they defined emotional intelligence as, "the subset of social intelligence that involves the ability to monitor one's own and others' feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them and to use this information to guide one's thinking and actions" (1990).

The Four Branches of Emotional Intelligence

Salovey and Mayer proposed a model that identified four different factors of emotional intelligence: the perception of emotion, the ability reason using emotions, the ability to understand emotion and the ability to manage emotions.

The Four Branches of Emotional Intelligence

Perceiving Emotions: The first step in understanding emotions is to accurately perceive them. In many cases, this might involve understanding nonverbal signals such as body language and facial expressions. Reasoning With Emotions: The next step involves using emotions to promote thinking and cognitive activity. Emotions help prioritize what we pay attention and react to; we respond emotionally to things that garner our attention.

Understanding Emotions:
Understanding Emotions: The emotions that we perceive can carry a wide variety of meanings. If someone is expressing angry emotions, the observer must interpret the cause of their anger and what it might mean. For example, if your boss is acting angry, it might mean that he is dissatisfied with your work; or it could be because he got a speeding ticket on his way to work that morning or that he's been fighting with his wife.

Managing Emotions
Managing Emotions: The ability to manage emotions effectively is a key part of emotional intelligence. Regulating emotions, responding appropriately and responding to the emotions of others are all important aspect of emotional management.