MAE 3241: AERODYNAMICS AND FLIGHT MECHANICS REVIEW OF INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW OVER AIRFOILS AND WINGS

Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering Department Florida Institute of Technology

D. R. Kirk

HOW DOES AN AIRFOIL GENERATE LIFT?

Lift due to imbalance of pressure distribution over top and bottom surfaces of airfoil (or wing) If pressure on top is lower than pressure on bottom surface, lift is generated Why is pressure lower on top surface? We can understand answer from basic physics: Continuity (Mass Conservation) Newtons 2nd law (Euler or Bernoulli Equation)

Lift = PA

HOW DOES AN AIRFOIL GENERATE LIFT?

1. Flow velocity over top of airfoil is faster than over bottom surface Streamtube A senses upper portion of airfoil as an obstruction Streamtube A is squashed to smaller cross-sectional area Mass continuity rAV=constant: IF A THEN V Streamtube A is squashed most in nose region (ahead of maximum thickness)

A B

HOW DOES AN AIRFOIL GENERATE LIFT?

2. As V p 1 p rV 2 constant Incompressible: Bernoullis Equation 2 Compressible: Eulers Equation dp rVdV Called Bernoulli Effect 3. With lower pressure over upper surface and higher pressure over bottom surface, airfoil feels a net force in upward direction Lift Most of lift is produced in first 20-30% of wing (just downstream of leading edge)

AIRFOILS VERSUS WINGS

Why do airfoils have such a shape? How are lift and drag produced? NACA airfoil performance data How do we design? What is limit of behavior?

FINAL EXAM SAMPLE QUESTIONS

Tell me everything can you about the design of these wings

d dihedral

AIRFOIL NOMENCLATURE

Mean Chamber Line: Set of points halfway between upper and lower surfaces Measured perpendicular to mean chamber line itself Leading Edge: Most forward point of mean chamber line Trailing Edge: Most reward point of mean chamber line Chord Line: Straight line connecting the leading and trailing edges Chord, c: Distance along the chord line from leading to trailing edge Chamber: Maximum distance between mean chamber line and chord line Measured perpendicular to chord line

NACA AIRFOIL NAMING CONVENTION

NACA (National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics) precursor to NASA Excellent historical discussion in Section 2.8 Early NACA series, 4-, 5-, modified 4-/5-digit generated with analytical equations Later families, including 6-Series, are more complicated shapes derived using theoretical rather than geometrical methods Before NACA series, airfoil design was rather arbitrary with nothing to guide designers except experience with known shapes and experimentation with modified shapes

EXAMPLE: NACA FOUR-DIGIT SERIES

First digit specifies maximum camber in percentage of chord Second digit indicates position of maximum camber in tenths of chord Last two digits provide maximum thickness of airfoil in percentage of chord

NACA 2415
Example:

NACA 2415

Airfoil has maximum thickness of 15% of chord (0.15c) Camber of 2% (0.02c) located 40% back from airfoil leading edge (0.4c)

WHAT CREATES AERODYNAMIC FORCES? (2.2)

Aerodynamic forces exerted by airflow comes from only 2 sources 1. Pressure, p, distribution on surface Acts normal to surface

2. Shear stress, tw, (friction) on surface Acts tangentially to surface

Pressure and shear are in units of force per unit area (N/m2) Net unbalance creates an aerodynamic force No matter how complex the flow field, and no matter how complex the shape of the body, the only way nature has of communicating an aerodynamic force to a solid object or surface is through the pressure and shear stress distributions that exist on the surface. The pressure and shear stress distributions are the two hands of nature that reach out and grab the body, exerting a force on the body the aerodynamic force

RESOLVING THE AERODYNAMIC FORCE: WING

Relative Wind: Direction of V We used subscript to indicate far upstream conditions Angle of Attack, a: Angle between relative wind (V) and chord line

Total aerodynamic force, R, can be resolved into two force components Lift, L: Component of aerodynamic force perpendicular to relative wind Drag, D: Component of aerodynamic force parallel to relative wind

RESOLVING THE AERODYNAMIC FORCE: ROCKET

Aerodynamic force, R, may also be resolved into components perpendicular and parallel to chord line Normal Force, N: Perpendicular to chord line Axial Force, A: Parallel to chord line L and D are easily related to N and A For airfoils and wings, L and D most common For rockets, missiles, bullets, etc. N and A more useful

L N cosa A sin a D N sin a A cosa

MORE DEFINITIONS
Total aerodynamic force on airfoil is summation of F1 and F2 Lift is obtained when F2 > F1 Misalignment of F1 and F2 creates Moments, M, which tend to rotate airfoil/wing A moment (torque) is a force times a distance Value of induced moment depends on point about which moments are taken Moments about leading edge, MLE, or quarter-chord point, c/4, Mc/4 In general MLE Mc/4

VARIATION OF L, D, AND M WITH a

Lift, Drag and M on a airfoil or wing will change as a changes Variations of these quantities are some of most important information that an airplane designer needs to know Aerodynamic Center Point about which moments essentially do not vary with a Mac=constant (independent of a) For low speed airfoils aerodynamic center is near quarter-chord point

SAMPLE DATA: SYMMETRIC AIRFOIL

Lift Coefficient

Angle of Attack, a A symmetric airfoil generates zero lift at zero a

SAMPLE DATA: CAMBERED AIRFOIL

Lift Coefficient

Angle of Attack, a A cambered airfoil generates positive lift at zero a

WHY DOES LIFT CURVE BEND OVER?

Low a a

Moderate a

High a

a
http://www.soton.ac.uk/Racing/Greenpower/BoundaryLayers/

REAL EFFECTS: VISCOSITY (m)

To understand drag and actual airfoil/wing behavior we need an understanding of viscous flows (all real flows have friction) Inviscid (frictionless) flow around a body will result in zero drag! Called dAlemberts paradox Must include friction (viscosity, m) in theory See 3.18-3.20 Flow adheres to surface because of friction between gas and solid boundary At surface flow velocity is zero, called No-Slip Condition Thin region of retarded flow in vicinity of surface, called a Boundary Layer At outer edge of B.L., V At solid boundary, V=0 The presence of friction in the flow causes a shear stress at the surface of a body, which, in turn contributes to the aerodynamic drag of the body: skin friction drag

COMMENTS ON VISCOUS FLOWS

TYPES OF FLOWS: FRICTION VS. NO-FRICTION

Flow very close to surface of airfoil is Influenced by friction and is viscous (boundary layer flow) Stall (separation) is a viscous phenomena

Flow away from airfoil is not influenced by friction and is wholly inviscid

THE REYNOLDS NUMBER, Re

One of most important dimensionless numbers in fluid mechanics/ aerodynamics Reynolds number is ratio of two forces: Inertial Forces Viscous Forces c is length scale (chord)

rV c Re m

Reynolds number tells you when viscous forces are important and when viscosity may be neglected

Outside B.L. flow Inviscid (high Re)

Within B.L. flow highly viscous (low Re)

LAMINAR VERSUS TURBULENT FLOW

Two types of viscous flows Laminar: streamlines are smooth and regular and a fluid element moves smoothly along a streamline Turbulent: streamlines break up and fluid elements move in a random, irregular, and chaotic fashion

LAMINAR VERSUS TURBULENT FLOW

All B.L.s transition from laminar to turbulent Turbulent velocity profiles are fuller cf,turb > cf,lam

FLOW SEPARATION
Key to understanding: Friction causes flow separation within boundary layer Separation then creates another form of drag called pressure drag due to separation

COMPARISON OF DRAG FORCES

Same total drag as airfoil

OVERVIEW: AIRFOIL STALL

Key to understanding: Friction causes flow separation within boundary layer 1. B.L. either laminar or turbulent 2. All laminar B.L. turbulent B.L. 3. Turbulent B.L. fuller than laminar B.L., more resistant to separation Separation creates another form of drag called pressure drag due to separation Dramatic loss of lift and increase in drag

WHY DOES BOUNDARY LAYER SEPARATE?

Adverse pressure gradient interacting with velocity profile through B.L. High speed flow near upper edge of B.L. has enough speed to keep moving through adverse pressure gradient Lower speed fluid (which has been retarded by friction) is exposed to same adverse pressure gradient is stopped and direction of flow can be reversed This reversal of flow direction causes flow to separate Turbulent B.L. more resistance to flow separation than laminar B.L. because of fuller velocity profile To help prevent flow separation we desire a turbulent B.L.

WHY DOES AN AIRFOIL STALL?

Two major consequences of separated flow over airfoil Dramatic loss of lift (stalling) Separated flow causes higher pressure on upper surface of airfoil Major increase in drag Separation causes lower pressure on trailing edge Unbalance of pressure force causes pressure drag due to separation

SAMPLE DATA: CAMBERED AIRFOIL STALL

Lift or Lift Coefficient

Angle of Attack, a

SUMMARY OF VISCOUS EFFECTS ON DRAG

Friction has two effects: 1. Skin friction due to shear stress at wall 2. Pressure drag due to flow separation

D D friction D pressure
Total drag due to Drag due to = viscous effects skin friction Called Profile Drag + Drag due to separation More for laminar Less for turbulent

Less for laminar More for turbulent

So how do you design? Depends on case by case basis, no definitive answer

LIFT, DRAG, AND MOMENT COEFFICIENTS

Behavior of L, D, and M depend on a, but also on velocity and altitude V, r , Wing Area (S), Wing Shape, m , compressibility Characterize behavior of L, D, M with coefficients (cl, cd, cm)

1 2 L rV Scl 2 L L cl 1 q S 2 rV S 2 cl f a , M , Re

Matching Mach and Reynolds (called similarity parameters)

M, Re

M, Re cl, cd, cm identical

LIFT, DRAG, AND MOMENT COEFFICIENTS

Behavior of L, D, and M depend on a, but also on velocity and altitude V, r , Wing Area (S), Wing Shape, m , compressibility

Characterize behavior of L, D, M with coefficients (cl, cd, cm)

1 L rV2 Scl 2 L L cl 1 rV2 S q S 2 cl f1 a , M , Re

1 D rV2 Scd 2 D D cd 1 rV2 S q S 2 cd f 2 a , M , Re

1 rV2 Sccm 2 M L cm 1 rV2 Sc q Sc 2 cm f 3 a , M , Re M

Comment on Notation: Lower case, cl, cd, and cm for infinite wings (airfoils) Upper case, CL, CD, and CM for finite wings (real wings)

SAMPLE DATA: NACA 23012 AIRFOIL

Lift Coefficient cl=L/(rV2S)

Moment Coefficient cm, c/4

AIRFOIL DATA: NACA 23012 WING SECTION

Re dependence at high a Separation and Stall

cd vs. a
Independent of Re

cd

cl vs. a

Dependent on Re

cl

cm,a.c. vs. cl very flat

cm,c/4

cm,a.c.

cl

AIRFOIL THICKNESS: WWI AIRPLANES

English Sopwith Camel

Thin wing, lower maximum CL Bracing wires required high drag

German Fokker Dr-1

Higher maximum CL Internal wing structure Higher rates of climb Improved maneuverability

EXAMPLE: F-104 LOCKHEED STARFIGHTER

First airplane designed for sustained flight at Mach 2 Very sharp leading edge on wings (razor sharp leading edges, thickness 3.4 %) Designed to minimize wave drag at supersonic speeds Very poor low-speed aerodynamic performance Such wings tend to stall at low angles of attack, CLmax is only about 1.15 Vstall (full) ~ 198 MPH, Vstall (empty) ~ 152 MPH (Vstall proportional to W1/2)

EXAMPLE: BOEING 727

Designed in 1960s to operate out of airports with relatively short runways Desire to minimize take-off and landing distances Maximum CL = 3.0 Vstall ~ 113 MPH

OVERVIEW: KUTTA CONDITION

Suppose we model the flow around an airfoil using a potential flow approach:

How many theoretical potential flow solutions are exist? The answer is that there are infinitely many.

Flow 1

Flow 2

Flow (1) and Flow (2) satisfy all conditions for potential flow theory, however G1 G2, so we know that L1 L2 (recall rotating cylinder example) Experimental evidence (nature) tells us which G should be used Kutta Condition (see 4.5)

EXAMPLE: NACA 65-006 SYMMETRIC AIRFOIL

dcl/da = 2p

Bell X-1 used NACA 65-006 (6% thickness) as horizontal tail Thin airfoil theory lift slope: dcl/da = 2p rad-1 = 0.11 deg-1 Compare with data At a = -4: cl ~ -0.45 At a = 6: cl ~ 0.65 dcl/da = 0.11 deg-1

cm,c/4 = 0

Thin airfoil theory: cm,c/4 = 0 Compare with data

CAN AN AIRFOIL PRODUCE LIFT WHEN IT IS FLYING UPSIDE DOWN?

NACA 2415 flying right side up Zero angle of attack Lift in positive vertical direction

NACA 2415 upside down Zero angle of attack Lift in negative vertical direction

Positive angle of attack Say a=10 Lift in positive vertical direction

Positive angle of attack Say a=10 Lift in positive vertical direction, but less than the right side up airfoil

CAN AN AIRFOIL PRODUCE LIFT WHEN IT IS FLYING UPSIDE DOWN?

NACA 2415 flying upside down at certain angles of attack will generate positive lift, but less than same airfoil right side up at the same angle of attack Here is a way to understand this: If we take airfoil on left and turn it upside down it is same as airfoil right side up but with a negative angle of attack Therefore, lift coefficient for upside down airfoil at positive angle of attack is given by data for negative angles of attack The negative cl connotes a downward lift on the ordinary right side up airfoil when pitched to a negative angle of attack In upside down orientation (airfoil on right), lift is directed upward

CAN AN AIRFOIL PRODUCE LIFT WHEN IT IS FLYING UPSIDE DOWN? NACA 2415 AIRFOIL Zero-lift a, aL=0 = -2 So airfoil will generate positive lift (when right side up) for a > 2 Now turn airfoil upside down If a = 0, negative lift If a = 2, zero lift If a is greater than 2 (but reading a range) airfoil will generate lift in positive vertical direction Upside down airfoil at same a generates less lift Example: Right side up: a = 10, cl = 1.2 Upside down: a = 10, cl = - 0.8

VORTEX MOVING BLADE ROW MODEL

Thrust of engine largely dependent on change in total pressure across blade rows Blade row interaction critical to overall performance

Detail of multiple compressor rows

FLIGHT MECHANICS EXAMPLE: GOSSAMER CONDOR

August 26, 1977: Gossamer Condor, designed by Dr. Paul MacCready (Caltech graduate) in United States and piloted by racing cyclist Bryan Allen, wins 50,000 Kremer prize for first 1 mile figure-of-eight flight by a human-powered aircraft Wingspan, b ~ 29 m, average chord, c ~ 2.3 m, total mass ~ 95 kg, CD ~ 0.05 Pilot delivered HP to propel aircraft For cruise at sea-level, estimate: 1. Cruise speed attained 2. CL 3. HP required input by pilot to achieve a speed of 20 MPH