CONTENTS

Defects in buildings. Causes of defects in buildings. Elements ,Defects and there Causes Common Defects and there respective remedy 1. Cracks. Causes of Cracks. Preventive Measures to avoid Cracks. Non destructive tests:1. Rebound test. 2. Penetration test. Rehabilitation methods:Grouting. Guniting. Jacketing. General chemicals used in construction and repairing work:1.Admixtures: Retarder. Accelerator. Plasticizer. Super plasticizer. Air entraining agent. Water proofer. Pigments.

Defects in buildings
As building conservation often involves various remedial works and building repairs, a thorough identification and recording of building defects are integral in determining the appropriate conservation methods and techniques to be employed.

A building defect is that which makes a project dangerous, unsafe or causes real damage. Building defects affect society at large due to possible danger posed; they also result in direct and indirect cost in repairs, abnormally high maintenance, disputes and possible loss of building use. Defects are generally caused by inadequacies in design, poor workmanship, building usage not in accordance with design and lack of or incorrect maintenance. Within the realm of building or remodeling your home, construction defects are much like a cancer that eats away at your very core your physical integrity, your strength and ultimately your ability to exist.

Causes of defects in buildings Water or dampness Physical movement due to forces Effect of environmental factors

Elements ,Defects and there Causes

Elements Defects
Rain water entry Causes No proper slope. Expansion joints not properly treated Cracks due expansion and contraction Improper drainage Presence of seeds in construction material

Peeling plant

Roof

Fungus and stain Occur when there is moisture

content

Cracks

Thermal movement due to omission of expansion joints Differential settlement of foundation Vegetation in construction material Corrosion of metal ties if used to strengthen masonry

Elements and there Causes

Causes Defects Defects Elements Causes
Thermal movement due to omission Thermal movement dueof to omission of expansion joints expansion joints Differential settlement ofsettlement foundationof foundation Horizontal Horizontal and Differential and Vegetation in walls vertical cracks Vegetation in walls vertical cracks Corrosion ofCorrosion metal ties of if used to metal ties if used to strengthen masonry strengthen masonry

Walls

Poor surface preparation Poor surface preparation Peeling - Plaster wet troweling of troweling the white of coat Peeling -Insufficient Plaster Insufficient wet the white coat New plaster might have a high have pH a high pH New plaster might Occur when there is moisture Fungus and stain and Occur when there is moisture Fungus stain content in the walls content in the walls

Salt crystallization, Erosion of Erosion mortar of winds, mortar the disintegrating effects ofscouring action of winds, the disintegrating effects of Joint. wall-growing plant. Joint. wall-growing plant.

Salt crystallization, scouring action of

Caused Caused due to spreading due to spreading of roof of roof Leaning wall whichthe forces wt. of the roof wt.down of roof down Leaning wallwhich forces toward the toward wall. the wall.

Elements and there Causes

Elements Defects
Causes
Thermal movement due to omission of expansion joints Differential settlement of foundation Vegetation in construction material. Presence of vegetation around

Cracks

Flooring

Water collection
Decayed floor board

Poor workmanship Improper leveling Pest attacks, Careless lifting of weakened boards Lack of natural preservatives Corroded nails. Warping of thin or insufficiently seasoned wood Inadequate hinge support or loosening of hinges

Windows and doors

Door Sticking

Elements and there Causes

Elements

Defects
Uneven settlement

Causes Including shrinking clay soil Water level Increased loads Deteriorating of building materials

Foundation

Presence of vegetation around Deteriorating of building materials Cracks Corrosion of metal ties if used to strengthen masonry

Elements and there Causes

Elements Defects
Causes
Inadequate protection to timber Use of inappropriate grade of timber Moisture ingress into timber Insect/termite attack Non provision of protective coating Corrosion on steel frames Bimetallic action on aluminum frame exposed to environment Varying moisture content causing expansion and contraction Improper fixing with adjoining masonry Corrosion of hold fast/anchors Alternate wetting and drying

Surface damage/ deterioration

Joinery Work: Frames

Distortion

Cracking and softening

Dry and wet rot Nailing or physical impact

Elements and there Causes

Elements Defects
Cracking of glass panels Causes
Corrosion of steel screws, clips and frame Excessive deflection of lintel causing distortion of frame
Excessive pressure on joint fixturesExcessive moisture content in wooden members

Frames

Loosening of jointing failures individual members

Leaking pipes

Corrosion External damage due to vibrations Freezing and thawing

Wearing out and external damage Poor installation Bimetallic corrosion when dissimilar metals are used Thermal expansion and contraction due to circulation of hot and cold water

Water- pipe
Leaking joints

Elements and there Causes

Elements Storage Cistern Defects
Corrosion of cistern fittings Causes
Bimetallic action with fittings of brass or other copper bearing alloys

Drainage waste pipe

Softening and distortion

Blocking

Ageing Reaction with chemical cleaners Internal corrosion Household waste

Taps Underground Pipes

Drips when closed Faulty washer

Worn valve seating

Blockage

Poor layout (pipes laid with insufficient slopes) Drain fractured by settlement, heavy traffic or tree roots

Elements and there Causes

Elements Traps Defects
Leakage Causes
Faulty plumbing Accumulation of grease, dirt and other material eg. Hair Water seal broken due to evaporation and drying of water seal Float not functioning Faulty plumbing Cracks in tank body

Clogging

Foul smell Overflow / no flow Tanks overhead/ undergroun Leakage d

Elements and there Causes

Elements Materials: Timber Defects
Deformation Rot in structural timber Decay White powdering deposit Causes
Seasonal moisture movement Dry rot due to ingress of water Insect/ termite attack Continuous dampness Efflorescence caused by crystallization of soluble salts in brick or mortar Sulphate attack Efflorescence Dampness Absorption of chemical salts

Bricks

Staining of bricks

Decay

Crystallization of salts formed below the surface in brick crevices

Elements and there Causes

Elements Blistering of surface: Concrete Defects
Cracking Causes
Atmospheric pollution- sulphur dioxide absorbed in rain water to form a weak acidic solution Chemical reaction Shrinkage Thermal expansion and contraction Overloading and overstressing Corrosion Excessive presence of soluble salts Atmospheric pollution/acid rains Physical abrasion Chemical attack Solar radiation Wind driven rains

Pop out Weathering/ Discoloration

Elements and there Causes

Elements R.C.C. Defects
Causes
Corrosion of rebar Differential thermal expansion Moisture ingress Exposure to atmosphere and moist polluted air Stress Corrosion Attack by gases containing sulphur dioxide

Failure of cover concrete

Mild steel

Rusting/corrosion/ pitting

Common Defects
1. CRACKS:
Cracks are indigenous, undesirable feature in many buildings. Some cracks are a result of wear and tear, while others are related to construction or design defects. Expansion and contraction of soils, consolidation of soil, vibration, wind, snow loading, overloading and impact are some causes of cracks in buildings.

Cracks are indicators

Cracks occur for all sorts of reasons. It is important to recognise that they are the visible symptom of possible problems, not the actual problem itself.

Cracks can be classified on the basis of their width as:

Thin cracks less than 1mm width. Medium cracks 1 to 2 mm width. Wide cracks more than 2 mm width.

Types of cracks.
Structural cracks due to incorrect design faulty construction Overloading Non Structural cracks Moisture changes Thermal movement Elastic deformation Creep Chemical reaction Foundation movement and settlement of soil Vegetation
Cracks may be uniform in width or may be of tapering nature. They may be straight, toothed, stepped, mapped pattern or random. They may be vertical, horizontal or diagonal in nature. Cracks may be superficial or may be deep. While superficial cracks are harmless the later are dangerous and can cause damage to the structure.

CAUSES OF CRACKS:
The principal causes of cracks are:

Moisture changes:

Most of the Building materials having pores in the form of intra molecular spaces expand on absorbing moisture and shrink on drying. These movements are generally reversible and cracks formed due to the movement of moisture may vary in width as per the seasonal changes. Some of the movements are irreversible in nature and cracks formed due to this remain permanent. Shrinkage in concrete or mortar depends on a number of factors. Cement concrete: Richer the mix greater is the drying shrinkage. Water content: More water in mix induces greater shrinkage Aggregates: Large aggregates with good grading has less shrinkage for same workability as less water is used. Curing: If proper curing starts as soon as initial set has taken place and continued for 7 to 10 days shrinkage is comparatively less. Excessive fines: More fines in aggregate requires more water for same workability and hence more shrinkage. Temperature: Concrete made in hot weather needs more water for same workability hence it results in more shrinkage. Materials having small moisture movement are burnt clay bricks, igneous rocks, limestone, marble and metals. Materials having moderate moisture movement are concrete, sandstone, mortars. Materials having high moisture movement are timber, block boards, plywood, wood cement products, asbestos sheet.

Thermal variations:

Prevention:
Use minimum quantity of water required for mixing cement concrete or cements mortar according to water cement ratio. Never allow cement concrete work without mechanical mix and vibrator.

Thermal variations:
Building materials more or less expand on heating and contract on cooling. The magnitude of expansion differs from material to material as per their molecular structure. The extent of thermal expansion and contraction depends on temperature variation, dimension of element, coefficient of expansion, color and surface properties and internally generated heat in case of wet concrete.

. The cracking of a typical structure due to thermal movement is given in

fig

In case of framed buildings due to thermal movement frames are distorted and cracks may appear as shown in fig

Thermal change is not in our hands but the preventive measures are. Hence architect must understand the preventive measures as well as the initial step to prevent the cracks.

Prevention of Thermal Cracks

To prevent thermal cracks expansion joints, control joints and joints in case of change of shape and direction of wing in a structure are to be provided.

General guide lines to provide movement joints

Type of Structure Movement of Joints

a b

RCC roof slab Supports for RCC slabs 4 to 6M length RCC framed structure, other load and bearing structure

Provide 20 to 25 mm wide, joint at 10 to 20 M apart Provide slip joint between slab and bearing wall.

Provide 25 to 40 mm wide expansion Joints at 30 to 45 M interval

Junction between old and new structure Compound walls

Provide vertical slip joints.

Expansion joint 5 to 8mm wide at 5to 8M interval and change of direction. Provide 20 to 25mm wide joints at 25m to 40m interval with control joints at 5 to 8m. In cross direction control joints have to be provided at 3 to 5 m intervals.

Concrete pavement

Chajja

Provide expansion joint 5 to 8mm wide at 4 to 6 M interval.

RCC Railing

Provide expansion joints 5 to 8mm wide at 6 to 9m interval.

Elastic Deformation
A change in dimensions of an object under load that is fully recovered when the load is removed. That part of the deformation in a stressed body which disappears upon removal of the stress.

Structural members of a building undergo elastic deformation due to the imposition of load which cause cracking in the members.

Creep
Building items such as concrete and brick work when subjected to a sustained load not only undergo elastic strain but also develop gradual and slow time dependent deformation known as creep or plastic strain. The creep in brick work may stop after 4 months but the same in concrete continue up to a year or so. The creep in concrete may be 2 to 3 times of the elastic deformation and hence has to be fully care fully considered.

Creep Creep: Time-dependent increase in deformation under sustained stress Relaxation: time-dependent decrease in stress under sustained deformation Prestress loss, settlements, buckling of columns Generally, time-dependent strains do no affect load capacity of a member at collapse. However, when instability is a factor, then creep can affect the failure load,e.g. a column under load (subjected to the time depended influences of creep and shrinkage) may have its safety reduced with time.

General measures for avoidance reduction of cracks due to elastic strain, creep and shrinkage
Water cement ratio is to be controlled. Reasonable pace of construction adopted. Brick work over load bearing RCC members should be done after removal of shutting giving a time gap. Brick walls between columns should be deferred as much as possible. Plastering of areas having RCC and brick members should be done after sufficient time gap say one month or suitable groves provided in junction. Shutting should be allowed stay for a larger period say 30 days or so for cantilevers which are bound to defect appreciably.

Movement due to chemical reaction

Certain chemical reaction in building materials result is appreciable change in volume of resulting products and internal stresses are set up which may result in outward thrust and formation of cracks. Soluble sulphate reacts with tricalcium aluminates in cement and hydraulic lime and form products which occupy larger volume and ends in developing cracks. An example of cracking of a floor due to coming in contact of the sub base made of brick khoa with heavy sulphate content and water can be seen in fig. below

Prevention
If sulphate content in soil is more that 0.2 % or in ground water more than 300 ppm use rich mix of concrete mortar has to be adopted. Avoid bricks containing too much soluble sulphates (more than 5 %) and use rich mortar in such cases. Use expansion and control joint at closure intervals

Corrosion of Reinforcement
Corroded reinforcement expands and cracks the concrete cover. To avoid this phenomenon rich mix of concrete using proper quality of water and adequate cover should adopted.

Foundation movement and settlement of soil

Building on expansion clays are extremely crack prone. The soil movement in such clay is more appreciable upto a depth of 1.5 to 2M and this cause swelling and shrinkage and results in crack in the structure. The cracks due to settlement are usually diagonal in shape. Crack appearing due to swelling is vertical Fig

Cracking due to vegetation

Large trees growing in the vicinity of buildings cause damage in all type of soil conditions. If the soil is shrinkable clay, cracking is severe in those conditions

Prevention:
Do not let trees grow too close to the buildings, compound walls etc. Remove any saplings of trees as soon as possible if they start growing in or near of walls etc.

Foundation/floor settlement:

Shear cracks in building occur where there is large differential settlement of foundation due to unequal bearing pressure under different parts of the structure or due to the excessive loading on foundation. Cracks are caused many times due to swelling o soil due to the moisture absorption. Cracks in the flooring are observed due to the compaction of the filling material in plinth at a later stage. Foundation and plinth of building constructed over expansive soils such as black cotton soil are subjected to upward thrust in rainy season due to moisture absorption causing cracks in superstructure.

Prevention:
The design of foundation must be based on sound engineering principles and good practice.

Poor workmanship:
Cracks in the building elements are also caused due to the substandard workmanship and bad construction practices, the main areas where the cracks are seen are brick walls, plastered surfaces, slabs and flooring. The positions where these are seen are the junctions of concrete and brick work, sill and lintel portions of walls, junctions of walls and flooring material, balcony parapet walls, parapet copings. These cracks may be caused to excessive rich mortar brick work causing shrinkage.

2. Seepage
The process by which a liquid leaks through a porous substance. Seepage may be from cut or natural slopes. Anything which contains the water will face the problem of seepage and seepage problem will be also be there if water content ratio is high.

General measures to avoid seepage

Seepage controlling measures starts from the construction of the thing which water has to be kept in. To control the seepage it is important to use the good quality construction material. Care should be taken that no cracks can arrive in course of time. Water proofing compound and techniques should be used.

Non destructive test.

Nondestructive testing asks "Is there something wrong with this material?" Various performance and proof tests, in contrast, ask "Does this component work?

The idea of future usefulness is relevant to the quality control practice of sampling. Sampling is nondestructive testing if the tested sample is returned to service. e.g. If the steel is tested to verify the alloy in some bolts that can then be returned to service then the test is nondestructive. In contrast, even if spectroscopy used in the chemical testing of many fluids is inherently nondestructive, the process is destructive if the test samples are discarded after testing.
It is a controlled test which is done with the machine and we get the assured of quality control and we get a proof of that material. NDT provides an excellent balance between quality control and cost-effectiveness.

NDE Test .
Non-destructive evaluation (NDE) is a term that is often used interchangeably with NDT. The nondestructive testing is not confined to crack detection but an NDE method would not only locate a defect, but it would also be used to measure about that defect such as its size, shape, and orientation.

Non destructive test.

Advantage
Ensures the Integrity and Reliability of a Product. Prevents Accidents and Saving Lives Ensures Customer Satisfaction Aiding in Product Design Controlling Manufacturing Processes
Maintaining Uniform Quality Level

List Non destructive test.

Rebound test Penetration test
Pull-Out Tests Dynamic Tests

Radioactive Methods

Rebound test.
The rebound hammer is a surface hardness tester for which an empirical correlation has been established between strength and rebound number.
The only known instrument to make use of the rebound principle for concrete testing is the Schmidt hammer and is suitable for both laboratory and field work.

1.The underlying principle of the rebound hammer test is that the rebound of an elastic mass depends on the hardness of the surface against which its mass strikes. 2. The hammer is forced against the surface of the concrete by the spring and the distance of rebound is measured on a scale. The test surface can be horizontal, vertical or at any angle but the instrument must be calibrated in this position.

3. The surface hardness and therefore the rebound is taken to be related to the compressive strength of the concrete. The rebound value is read from a graduated scale and is designated as the rebound number or rebound index. The compressive strength can be read directly from the graph provided on the body of the hammer.
4. The Schmidt hammer provides an inexpensive, simple and quick method of obtaining an indication of concrete strength, but accuracy of 15 to 20 percent is possible. 5. The results are affected by factors such as smoothness of surface, size and shape of specimen, moisture condition of the concrete, type of cement and coarse aggregate, and extent of carbonation of surface.

Procedure to determine strength of hardened concrete by rebound hammer;

1.Before commencement of a test, the rebound hammer should be tested against test anvil, to get reliable results, for which the manufacturer of the rebound hammer indicates the range of readings on the anvil suitable for different types of rebound hammer. 2. Apply light pressure on the plunger it will release it from the locked position and allow it to extend to the ready position for the test. 3.Press the plunger against the surface of the concrete, keeping the instrument perpendicular to the test surface. Apply a gradual increase in pressure until the hammer impacts. (Do not touch the button while depressing the plunger. Press the button after impact, in case it is not convenient to note the rebound reading in that position.) 4. Take the average of about 15 readings.

Penetration test
This is a method which can be employed for the detection of open-to-surface discontinuities in any industrial product which is made from a non-porous material.Other name for same test is liquid PT. A liquid penetrate is applied to the surface of the product for a certain predetermined time, after which the excess penetrate is removed from the surface.