Fundamentals of Seismic

Refraction

Theory, Acquisition, and Interpretation
Craig Lippus
Manager, Seismic Products
Geometrics, Inc.

December 3, 2007

Geometrics, Inc.

Owned by Oyo Corporation,
Japan
In business since 1969
Seismographs, magnetometers,
EM systems
Land, airborne, and marine
80 employees
Located in San Jose,
California
Fundamentals of Seismic
Waves

Q. What is a seismic wave?


Fundamentals of Seismic
Waves
A. Transfer of energy by way of
particle motion.

Different types of seismic waves are
characterized by their particle motion.

Q. What is a seismic wave?


Three different types of
seismic waves
Compressional (p) wave
Shear (s) wave
Surface (Love and
Raleigh) wave
Only p and s waves (collectively referred to
as body waves) are of interest
in seismic refraction.
Compressional (p) Wave
Identical to sound wave particle
motion is parallel to propagation
direction.
Animation courtesy Larry Braile, Purdue University
Shear (s) Wave
Particle motion is perpendicular
to propagation direction.
Animation courtesy Larry Braile, Purdue University
Velocity of Seismic Waves
Depends on density elastic moduli

3
4
+
=
K
Vp

= Vs
where K = bulk modulus, = shear
modulus, and = density.
Velocity of Seismic Waves
Bulk modulus = resistance to
compression = incompressibility

Shear modulus = resistance to
shear = rigidity
The less compressible a material is, the
greater its p-wave velocity, i.e., sound
travels about four times faster in water
than in air. The more resistant a material
is to shear, the greater its shear wave
velocity.

Q. What is the rigidity of
water?

A. Water has no rigidity. Its shear
strength is zero.

Q. What is the rigidity of
water?

Q. How well does water
carry shear waves?

A. It doesnt.

Q. How well does water
carry shear waves?
Fluids do not carry shear waves. This
knowledge, combined with earthquake
observations, is what lead to the
discovery that the earths outer core is
a liquid rather than a solid shear
wave shadow.
p-wave velocity vs. s-
wave velocity
p-wave velocity must always
be greater than s-wave
velocity. Why?
3
4
3
4
2
2
+ =
+
=

K
K
Vs
Vp
K and are always positive numbers, so Vp
is always greater than Vs.
Velocity density paradox
Q. We know that in practice, velocity
tends to be directly proportional to
density. Yet density is in the
denominator. How is that possible?

Velocity density paradox
A. Elastic moduli tend to increase with density also,
and at a faster rate.
Q. We know that in practice, velocity
tends to be directly proportional to
density. Yet density is in the
denominator. How is that possible?

Velocity density paradox
Note: Elastic moduli are
important parameters for
understanding rock
properties and how they
will behave under various
conditions. They help
engineers assess
suitability for founding
dams, bridges, and other
critical structures such as
hospitals and schools.

Measuring p- and s-wave
velocities can help
determine these
properties indirectly and
non-destructively.
Q. How do we use seismic
waves to understand the
subsurface?
Q. How do we use seismic
waves to understand the
subsurface?
A. Must first understand wave
behavior in layered media.
Q. What happens when a
seismic wave encounters a
velocity discontinuity?
Q. What happens when a
seismic wave encounters a
velocity discontinuity?
A. Some of the energy is
reflected, some is refracted.
We are only interested in refracted energy!!
Q. What happens when a
seismic wave encounters a
velocity discontinuity?
Five important
concepts
Seismic Wavefront
Ray
Huygens Principle
Snells Law
Reciprocity
Q. What is a seismic
wavefront?
Q. What is a seismic
wavefront?
A. Surface of constant phase, like
ripples on a pond, but in three
dimensions.
Q. What is a seismic
wavefront?
The speed at which a wavefront
travels is the seismic velocity of
the material, and depends on the
materials elastic properties. In a
homogenious medium, a
wavefront is spherical, and its
shape is distorted by changes in
the seismic velocity.
Seismic wavefront
Q. What is a ray?
Q. What is a ray?
A. Also referred to as a wavefront
normal a ray is an arrow
perpendicular to the wave front,
indicating the direction of travel at
that point on the wavefront. There
are an infinite number of rays on a
wave front.
Ray
Huygens' Principle
Every point on a wave front can be
thought of as a new point source for
waves generated in the direction the
wave is traveling or being propagated.
Q. What causes
refraction?
Q. What causes
refraction?
A. Different portions of the
wave front reach the
velocity boundary earlier
than other portions,
speeding up or slowing
down on contact, causing
distortion of wave front.
Understanding and
Quantifying How Waves
Refract is Essential
Snells Law
2
1
sin
sin
V
V
r
i
=
(1)
Snells Law
If V
2
>V
1
, then as i increases, r
increases faster
Snells Law
r approaches 90
o
as i increases
Snells Law
Critical Refraction
At Critical Angle of incidence i
c
, angle of
refraction r = 90
o

2
1
90 sin
) sin(
V
V ic
=
2
1
) sin(
V
V
ic =
2
1
1
sin
V
V
ic

=
(2)
(3)
Snells Law
Critical Refraction
At Critical Angle of incidence i
c
, angle of
refraction r = 90
o

Snells Law
Critical Refraction
At Critical Angle of incidence i
c
, angle of
refraction r = 90
o

Snells Law
Critical Refraction
Seismic refraction makes use of
critically refracted, first-arrival
energy only. The rest of the wave
form is ignored.

Principal of
Reciprocity
The travel time of seismic energy
between two points is independent of
the direction traveled, i.e.,
interchanging the source and the
geophone will not affect the seismic
travel time between the two.
Using Seismic Refraction
to Map the Subsurface
Critical Refraction Plays a Key
Role
1 1 /V x T =
1 2 1
2
V
df
V
cd
V
ac
T + + =
) cos( c i
h
df ac = =
) tan( c i h de bc = =
) tan( 2 c i h x de bc x cd = =
2 ) ( 1
2
) tan( 2
cos
2
V
i h x
i V
h
T
c
c

+ =
2 2 ) ( 1
2
) tan( 2
cos
2
V
x
V
i h
i V
h
T
c
c
+ =
2 2 ) ( 1
2
) cos(
) sin(
cos
1
2
V
x
i V
i
i V
h T
c
c
c
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
2 2 1
1
) ( 2 1
2
2
) cos(
) sin(
cos
2
V
x
i V V
i V
i V V
V
h T
c
c
c
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
2 2 1
1 2
2
) cos(
) sin(
2
V
x
i V V
i V V
h T
c
c
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
2
1
sin
V
V
ic =
(Snells Law)
2 2 1
1
2
1 2
) cos(
) sin(
2
V
x
i V V
i
V
V
hV T
c
c
+
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
2 2 1
1 2
) cos(
) sin(
) sin(
1
2
V
x
i V V
i
i
hV T
c
c
c
+
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
2 1
2
) cos( 2
V
x
V
i h
T
c
+ =
2 2 1
2
1 2
) cos( ) sin(
) ( sin 1
2
V
x
i i V V
i
hV T
c c
c
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
2 2 1
2
1 2
) cos( ) sin(
) ( cos
2
V
x
i i V V
i
hV T
c c
c
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
2 2
2
) sin(
) cos(
2
V
x
i V
i
h T
c
c
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
) sin( 2 1 c i V V =
From Snells Law,
(4)
Using Seismic Refraction
to Map the Subsurface
Using Seismic Refraction
to Map the Subsurface
Using Seismic Refraction
to Map the Subsurface
Using Seismic Refraction
to Map the Subsurface
Using Seismic Refraction
to Map the Subsurface
Using Seismic Refraction
to Map the Subsurface
Using Seismic Refraction
to Map the Subsurface
Using Seismic Refraction
to Map the Subsurface
Using Seismic Refraction
to Map the Subsurface
Using Seismic Refraction
to Map the Subsurface
Using Seismic Refraction
to Map the Subsurface
Using Seismic Refraction
to Map the Subsurface
Using Seismic Refraction
to Map the Subsurface
Using Seismic Refraction
to Map the Subsurface
Using Seismic Refraction
to Map the Subsurface
Using Seismic Refraction
to Map the Subsurface
Using Seismic Refraction
to Map the Subsurface
Using Seismic Refraction
to Map the Subsurface
Using Seismic Refraction
to Map the Subsurface
Using Seismic Refraction
to Map the Subsurface
Depth{
1 2
1 2
2 V V
V V Xc
Depth
+
=

(5)
Using Seismic Refraction
to Map the Subsurface
Depth{
For layer parallel to
surface
1 2
1 2
2 V V
V V Xc
Depth
+
=

) cos(sin 2
2
1
1
1
V
V
V Ti

=
(6)
2 1
2
) cos( 2
V
x
V
i h
T
c
+ =
1 2
1 2
2 V V
V V Xc
h
+
=

|
.
|

\
|
=

2
1
1
1
sin cos 2
V
V
V T
h
i
Summary of Important
Equations
For refractor
parallel to surface
2
1
sin
sin
V
V
r
i
=
2
1
1
sin
V
V
ic

=
(2)
(3)
(1)
(5)
(4)
(6)
Snells Law
2
1
) sin(
V
V
ic =
) cos(sin 2
2
1
1
1 2
1
V
V
V T
h
i

=
1
3 2
2
2 1
3 1
2 3
2
) /
1
cos(sin 2
) /
1
cos(sin
) /
1
cos(sin
h
V V
V
V V
V V
T T
h
i i
+

(
(

=
2 1
4 3
1
3
2
4 2
1
2
2 1
1
4 1
1
2 4
3
) / cos(sin 2
) / cos(sin 2
) / cos(sin
) / cos(sin
h h
V V
V
V
V h
V V
V V
T T
h
i i
+ +
(

Crossover Distance vs.

Depth
Depth/X
c
vs. Velocity
Contrast
Important Rule of Thumb
The Length of the Geophone
Spread Should be 4-5 times
the depth of interest.
Dipping Layer
Defined as Velocity Boundary
that is not Parallel to Ground Surface
You should always do a minimum
of one shot at either end the
spread. A single shot at one end
does not tell you anything about
dip, and if the layer(s) is dipping,
your depth and velocity calculated
from a single shot will be wrong.
Dipping Layer
If layer is dipping (relative to ground
surface), opposing travel time curves
will be asymmetrical.
Updip shot apparent velocity > true velocity
Downdip shot apparent velocity < true velocity
Dipping Layer
Dipping Layer
) sin (sin
2
1
1
1
1
1
u d c m V m V i

+

=
) sin( 1 o + = c d i m V
) sin( 1 o = c i mu V
d c m V i 1
1
sin

= +o
u c m V i 1
1
sin

= o
) sin (sin
2
1
1
1
1
1
u d m V m V

= o
Dipping Layer
From Snells Law,
) sin(
1
2
c i
V
V =
o cos
) cos( 2
1
c
iu
u
i
T V
D =
o cos
) cos( 2
1
c
id
d
i
T V
D =
Dipping Layer
The true velocity V2 can also be calculated
by multiplying the harmonic mean of the up-
dip and down-dip velocities by the cosine of
the dip.
o cos
2
2 2
2 2
2
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
D U
D U
V V
V V
V
What if V2 < V1?
2
1
sin
sin
V
V
r
i
=
What if V2 < V1?
Snells Law
2
1
sin
sin
V
V
r
i
=
What if V2 < V1?
Snells Law
If V
1
>V
2
, then as i increases, r
increases, but not as fast.
What if V2 < V1?
If V2<V1, the energy
refracts toward the normal.
None of the refracted energy
makes it back to the surface.
This is called a velocity inversion.
Seismic Refraction requires
that velocities increase
with depth.
A slower layer beneath a
faster layer will not be
detected by seismic refraction.
The presence of a velocity inversion can
lead to errors in depth calculations.
Delay Time Method
Allows Calculation of Depth
Beneath Each Geophone

Requires refracted arrival at each
geophone from opposite directions

Requires offset shots

Data redundancy is important
Delay Time Method
x
V
1
V
2
Delay Time Method
x
V
1
V
2
) cos(
) tan( ) tan(
) cos( 1 2 2 2 1 c
B c B c A
c
A
AB
i V
h
V
i h
V
i h
V
AB
i V
h
T + + ~
Delay Time Method
x
) cos(
) tan( ) tan(
) cos( 1 2 2 2 1 c
P c P c A
c
A
AP
i V
h
V
i h
V
i h
V
AP
i V
h
T + + ~
) cos(
) tan( ) tan(
) cos( 1 2 2 2 1 c
B c B c A
c
A
AB
i V
h
V
i h
V
i h
V
AB
i V
h
T + + ~
V
1
V
2
Delay Time Method
x
) cos(
) tan( ) tan(
) cos( 1 2 2 2 1 c
P c P c B
c
B
BP
i V
h
V
i h
V
i h
V
BP
i V
h
T + + ~
) cos(
) tan( ) tan(
) cos( 1 2 2 2 1 c
P c P c A
c
A
AP
i V
h
V
i h
V
i h
V
AP
i V
h
T + + ~
) cos(
) tan( ) tan(
) cos( 1 2 2 2 1 c
B c B c A
c
A
AB
i V
h
V
i h
V
i h
V
AB
i V
h
T + + ~
V
1
V
2
Delay Time Method
x
t T T T AP BP AB 0 = +
Definition:
V
1
V
2
(7)
AB BP AP T T T t + = 0
)
`

+ + =
) cos(
) tan( ) tan(
) cos( 1 2 2 2 1
0
c
P c P c A
c
A
i V
h
V
i h
V
i h
V
AP
i V
h
t
)
`

+ + +
) cos(
) tan( ) tan(
) cos( 1 2 2 2 1 c
P c P c B
c
B
i V
h
V
i h
V
i h
V
BP
i V
h
)
`

+ +
) cos(
) tan( ) tan(
) cos( 1 2 2 2 1 c
B c B c A
c
A
i V
h
V
i h
V
i h
V
AB
i V
h
2 1 2
0
) tan( 2
) cos(
2
V
i h
i V
h
V
AB BP AP
t
c P
c
p
+
+
=
But from figure above,
BP AP AB + =
. Substituting, we get
2 1 2
0
) tan( 2
) cos(
2
V
i h
i V
h
V
BP AP BP AP
t
c P
c
p
+
+
=
or
2 1
0
) tan( 2
) cos(
2
V
i h
i V
h
t
c P
c
p
=
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
) cos(
) sin(
) cos(
1
2
2 1
0
c
c
c
p
i V
i
i V
h t
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
) cos(
) sin(
) cos(
2
2 1
1
2 1
2
0
c
c
c
p
i V V
i V
i V V
V
h t
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
) cos(
) sin(
) cos(
2
2 1 2 1
1
2
1 0
c
c
c
p
i V V
i
i V V
V
V
V h t
|
.
|

\
|
=
2
1
sin
V
V
ic Substituting from Snells Law,
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
) cos(
) sin(
) cos(
sin
1
2
2 1 2 1
1 0
c
c
c
c
p
i V V
i
i V V
i
V h t
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
) cos(
) sin(
) cos(
sin
1
2
2 1 2 1
1 0
c
c
c
c
p
i V V
i
i V V
i
V h t
Multiplying top and bottom by sin(i
c
)
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
) cos( ) sin(
) ( sin
) cos( ) sin(
1
2
2 1
2
2 1
1 0
c c
c
c c
p
i i V V
i
i i V V
V h t
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
) cos( ) sin(
) ( cos
2
2 1
2
1 0
c c
c
p
i i V V
i
V h t
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
) sin(
) cos(
2
2
0
c
c
p
i V
i
h t
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
) sin(
) cos(
2
2
0
c
c
p
i V
i
h t
|
.
|

\
|
=
2
1
sin
V
V
ic
Substituting from Snells Law,
1
0
) cos( 2
V
i h
t
c p
=
(8)
We get
1 1
) cos(
2
) cos( 2
2
P point at Delay time
V
i h
V
i h t
D
c p c p o
TP = = = =
(9)
Reduced Traveltimes
Definition:
T
AP
= Reduced Traveltime at point P for a source at A
T
AP
=T
AP

x
Reduced traveltimes are useful for determining V
2
. A
plot of T vs. x will be roughly linear, mostly unaffected
by changes in layer thickness, and the slope will be
1/V
2
.
Reduced Traveltimes
x
From the above figure, T
AP
is also equal to T
AP
minus
the Delay Time. From equation 9, we then get
2
'
o
AP T AP AP
t
T D T T P = =
Reduced Traveltimes
x
Earlier, we defined t
o
as
t T T T AP BP AB 0 = +
Substituting, we get
2 2
'
AB BP AP
AP
o
AP AP
T T T
T
t
T T
+
= =
(7)
(10)
Reduced Traveltimes
( )
T
T T T
AP
AB AP BP
' = +

2 2
Finally, rearranging yields
The above equation allows a graphical determination of the T
curve. T
AB
is called the reciprocal time.
(11)
Reduced Traveltimes
( )
T
T T T
AP
AB AP BP
' = +

2 2
The first term is represented by the dotted line below:
Reduced Traveltimes
( )
T
T T T
AP
AB AP BP
' = +

2 2
The numerator of the second term is just the difference in the
traveltimes from points A to P and B to P.
Reduced Traveltimes
( )
T
T T T
AP
AB AP BP
' = +

2 2
Important: The second term only applies to refracted arrivals. It
does not apply outside the zone of overlap, shown in yellow
below.
Reduced Traveltimes
( )
T
T T T
AP
AB AP BP
' = +

2 2
The T (reduced traveltime) curve can now be determined graphically
by adding (T
AP
-T
BP
)/2 (second term from equation 9) to the T
AB
/2 line
(first term from equation 9). The slope of the T curve is 1/V
2
.
We can now calculate the delay time at point P. From Equation 10,
we see that
1
) cos(
2 V
i h t c p o
=
According to equation 8
2
'
o
AP AP
t
T T =
1
0 ) cos(
2
'
V
i h
T
t
T T
c p
AP AP AP = =
So
Now, referring back to equation 4
2 1
2
) cos( 2
V
x
V
i h
T
c
+ =
(12)
(4)
(8)
(10)
Its fair to say that
2 1
) cos( 2
V
x
V
i h
T
c p
AP + ~
Combining equations 12 and 13, we get
1 2 1 1
) cos( ) cos( 2 ) cos(
'
V
i h
V
x
V
i h
V
i h
T T
c p c p c p
AP AP + = =
Or
2 1
) cos(
'
V
x
V
i h
T
c p
AP + =
(13)
(14)
1
) cos(
V
i h
D
c p
Tp =
Referring back to equation 9, we see that
Substituting into equation 14, we get
2 2 1
) cos(
'
V
x
D
V
x
V
i h
T p T
c p
AP + = + =
Or
2
'
V
x
T D AP Tp =
h
D V
i
P
T
c
P
=
1
cos( )
Solving equation 9 for h
p
, we get
(15)
(16)
(9)
We know that the incident angle i is critical when r is 90
o
.
From Snells Law,

2
1
sin
sin
V
V
r
i
=
2
1
90 sin
sin
V
V ic
=
2
1
sin
V
V
ic =
|
.
|

\
|
=

2
1
1
sin
V
V
ic
Substituting back into equation 16,
) cos(
1
c
T
p
i
V D
h
p
=
(

|
.
|

\
|
=

2
1
1
1
sin cos
V
V
V D
h
p T
p
(16)
(17)
we get
In summary, to determine the
depth to the refractor h at any
given point p:
1.Measure V
1
directly from the
traveltime plot.

2.Measure the difference in traveltime
to point P from opposing shots (in
zone of overlap only).

3.Measure the reciprocal time T
AB
.

4. Per equation 11,

( )
T
T T T
AP
AB AP BP
' = +

2 2
divide the reciprocal time T
AB
by 2.
,
5. Per equation 11,

( )
T
T T T
AP
AB AP BP
' = +

2 2
add the difference time at each
point P to T
AB
/2 to get the reduced
traveltime at P, T
AP
.
,
6. Fit a line to the reduced
traveltimes, compute V
2
from slope.
2
'
V
x
T D AP Tp =
7. Using equation 15,
Calculate the Delay Time D
T
at
P
1
,

P
2
,

P
3
.P
N
(15)
8. Using equation 17,
Calculate the Depth h at P
1
,

P
2
,

P
3
.P
N
(

|
.
|

\
|
=

2
1
1
1
sin cos
V
V
V D
h
p T
p
(16)
Thats all there is to it!
More Data is Better Than Less
More Data is Better Than Less
More Data is Better Than Less
More Data is Better Than Less
More Data is Better Than Less
More Data is Better Than Less
More Data is Better Than Less
More Data is Better Than Less
More Data is Better Than Less
More Data is Better Than Less