Murderous

Mathematics

Text: Chapter 2, “Electromagnetism” by Gerald L. Pollack and Dainel R. Stump 1

Reference: Chapter 1, “Introduction to Electrodynamics” by David J. Griffiths
“To those who do not know mathematics it is difficult to
get across a real feeling as to the beauty, the deepest
beauty, of nature. … If you want to learn about nature,
to appreciate nature, it is necessary to understand the
language that she speaks in.”
– R. P. Feynman, The Character of Physical Law

2
Curvilinear coordinates

3
Cartesian Coordinates
In terms of Cartesian coordinates,
the position vector of a point P in
space, with respect to a chosen origin: ( x, y , z)
x  xˆi  yˆj  zkˆ

If the coordinate axes are rotated, but

the point P is left fixed in space. For
example, for a rotation by angle 
about k̂ :
ˆi  ˆi   cos ˆi  sin ˆj

ˆj  ˆj   sin ˆi  cos ˆj

kˆ  kˆ   kˆ 4
Cartesian Coordinates (cont’)

It follows from xˆi  yˆj  zkˆ  x  xˆi   yˆj  z kˆ 

 x cos ˆi  sin ˆj  y  sin ˆi  cos ˆj  z kˆ

  x cos   y sin  ˆi   x sin   y cos  ˆj  z kˆ

that or
 x   cos   sin  0  x   x   cos  sin  0  x 
         
 y    sin  cos  0  y   y     sin  cos  0  y 
z  0 0 1  z    z   0 0 1  z 
     

R 1  R T R
The matrix R depends on the angle and axis of rotation, but not
on P.
5
Cylindrical Coordinates
In terms of cylindrical coordinates,
the position vector of a point P in
space, with respect to a chosen origin:
x  rrˆ  zkˆ

where r  x2  y2 , z  z

x  r cos , y  r sin , z  z

rˆ  cos ˆi  sin ˆj drˆ  d  sin ˆi  cos ˆj  dˆ

It follows that ds  drrˆ  rd ˆ  dzkˆ

6
Spherical Coordinates
In terms of spherical coordinates, the position
vector of a point P in space, with respect to a x  rrˆ
chosen origin:
x  r sin  cos  where r  x2  y2  z 2

y  r sin  sin  rˆ  sin  cos ˆi  sin  sin ˆj  cos kˆ

It follows that
z  r cos 
ds  drrˆ  rd θˆ  r sin dˆ

drˆ  d cos  cos ˆi  cos  sin ˆj  sin kˆ   sin d  sin ˆi  cos ˆj
 θ̂  ˆ 7
Infinitesimal displacement vector
The infinitesimal displacement vector, from (x, y, z) to (x +
dx, y + dy, z + dz), is
ds  dxˆi  dyˆj  dzkˆ

In cylindrical ds  drrˆ  rd ˆ  dzkˆ

coordinates,
In spherical ds  drrˆ  rd θˆ  r sin dˆ
coordinates,
In general terms, let u1, u2, u3
u1  x, u2  y, u3  z
denote three coordinates that
specify the points in three Cartesian coordinates
dimensions:

u1  r , u2  , u3  z u1  r , u2  , u3  

cylindrical coordinates spherical coordinates 8

Infinitesimal displacement vector (cont’)
Suppose the unit vectors pointing in
eˆ1  ˆi , eˆ 2  ˆj, eˆ 3  kˆ
the directions of independent positive
displacements of u1, u2, u3, are
Cartesian coordinates
eˆ , e
ˆ
respectively: 1 2 3 , e
ˆ ,

eˆ1  rˆ , eˆ 2  ˆ , eˆ 3  kˆ eˆ 1  rˆ , eˆ 2  θˆ , eˆ 3  ˆ

cylindrical coordinates spherical coordinates

The infinitesimal displacement vector in space that results from
changing the coordinates by du1, du2, du3 can always be written in
the form:
ds  h1du1eˆ1  h2 du2eˆ 2  h3 du3eˆ 3

For Cartesian coordinates, the scale factors h1 = h2 = h3 = 1.

h1  1, h2  r , h3  1 h1  1, h2  r , h3  r sin 
9
cylindrical coordinates spherical coordinates
Vector algebra

10
Definitions
A vector A is a quantity with three components
A  Ax ˆi  Ay ˆj  Az kˆ  A1ˆi  A2 ˆj  A3kˆ

that transform under  Ax   Ax   A1   A1 

rotation in the same way        
 Ay   R Ay   A2   R A2 
as the coordinates of a  A  A   A  A 
point:  z  z  3  3
In suffix notation, the vector A is denoted Ai (i = 1, 2, 3).

Einstein summation convention: Ai  Rij A j

Note 1: Ai stands for two different things: the i th component of

the vector, and the vector itself. The context must be used to
decide which is meant.
Note 2: A scalar is a quantity that does not change under
rotation of the coordinate axes. 11
Definitions (cont’)
Note 3: Multiplication by a scalar & Addition of two vectors
Ai  Rij A j Bi  Rij B j

Ai  Rij A j  Rij  A j  Bi  Rij B j  Rij  B j 

Ai  Bi  Rij  A j   Rij  B j   Rij  A j  B j 

12
Dot Product
The dot product, or scalar product, of two vectors
A  Ax ˆi  Ay ˆj  Az kˆ B  Bx ˆi  B y ˆj  Bz kˆ

is a scalar A  B  Ax Bx  Ay B y  Az Bz
3
 A1 B1  A2 B2  A3 B3   Ai Bi
i 1

It follows that
ˆi  ˆi  ˆj  ˆj  kˆ  kˆ  1 ˆi  ˆj  ˆj  kˆ  kˆ  ˆi  0

Einstein summation convention: A  B  Ai Bi  ij Ai B j

1 if i  j
where the Kronecker delta tensor ij  
0 if i  j
13
Dot Product (cont’)
A dot B is a scalar:
A  B  AiBi  Rij A j Rik Bk  Rij Rik A j Bk

 RTji Rik A j Bk   RT R  jk A j Bk   jk A j Bk  A  B

Geometric meaning:
A dot B is the projection of A on B times the magnitude of B, or
the projection of B on A times the magnitude of A.
A  B  A B cos 

where  is the angle between A and B.

14
Cross Product
The cross product, or vector product, of two vectors
A  Ax ˆi  Ay ˆj  Az kˆ B  Bx ˆi  B y ˆj  Bz kˆ

ˆi ˆj kˆ ˆi ˆj kˆ
is a vector A  B  Ax Ay Az  A1 A2 A3
Bx By Bz B1 B2 B3

It follows that ˆi  ˆj  kˆ , ˆj  kˆ  ˆi , kˆ  ˆi  ˆj

3 3

The i th component of A x B,  A  B  i   ijk A j Bk  ijk A j Bk

j 1 k 1

The Levi-Civita alternating tensor

123   231   312  1
or the completely antisymmetric
tensor for three dimensions, ijk is
 213  132   321  15
1
0 unless i, j, and k are all different:
Cross Product (cont’)
An identity of the Levi-Civita tensor
 ijk  klm   kij  klm  il  jm  im  jl

A cross B is a vector:
 A  B i  ijk Aj Bk  Rip R jq Rkr  pqr R js As Rkt Bt  Rip R jq R js Rkr Rkt  pqr As Bt

 Rip RqjT R js RrkT Rkt  pqr As Bt  Rip  RT R  qs  RT R  rt  pqr As Bt

 Rip  qs  rt  pqr As Bt  Rip  pqr Aq Br  Rip  A  B  p

Geometric meaning:
A  B  A B sin nˆ

 is the angle between A and B. 16

Vector Product Identities
Scalar triple product:
A   B  C  B   C  A   C   A  B    A  B   C

Proof – A   B  C  Ai  B  C i  Ai  ijk B j Ck    ijk Ai B j Ck

 B j   ijk Ai Ck   B j   jki Ck Ai   B   C  A 

 Ck   ijk Ai B j   Ck   kij Ai B j   C   A  B 

Note – A   C  B   B   A  C  C   B  A 

17
Vector Product Identities (cont’)
Vector triple product:
A   B  C  B A  C  C A  B 

Proof –  A   B  C  i  ijk Aj  B  C k  ijk A j   klm Bl Cm 

  ijk  klm A j Bl Cm   kij  klm A j Bl Cm   il  jm  im  jl  A j Bl Cm

 il Bl   jm A j Cm   imCm   jl A j Bl   Bi  A  C   Ci  A  B 

18
 Vector differential operators
 (“del”),  (“del dot”),
2 (“del squared”),  (“del cross”)

19
Gradient of a Scalar Function
Consider the change of f (x) resulting from dx  dxˆi  dyˆj  dzkˆ
an infinitesimal displacement:
The change of f from x to x + dx is
f f f
df  f  x  dx   f  x   dx  dy  dz  f  dx
x y z
In Cartesian coordinates, “del f ”
f ˆ f ˆ f ˆ f
f  i  j  k f  ê i
x y z xi
“del f ” is a vector:
3 x
f j f
3
 f  i     Rij  f  j  Rij  f  j
xi j 1 xi x j j 1
x j
Here, xi  Rij x j  x j   R  ji xi 
1
  R 1  ji   R T  ji  Rij
xi
20
The “del” operator acts algebraically as a vector.
Gradient of a Scalar Function (cont’)
The direction of “del f ” at a point x is perpendicular to the
surface of constant f that includes the point x:
f  dx  df  0

for any arbitrary displacement dx along the surface of constant f.

“del f ” points in the direction of maximum increase of f:

df  f  dx  f dx cos 

where  is the angle between “del f ” and dx.

The change of f is maximum if  = 0. The magnitude of “del f ” is
the rate of change of f in that direction.
21
Gradient of a Scalar Function (cont’)
Consider the change of f (u1, u2, u3) resulting from an infinitesimal
displacement:
ds  h1du1eˆ 1  h2 du2eˆ 2  h3 du3eˆ 3

f f f
The change of f, du1  du2  du3  df
u1 u2 u3

 f  ds   f  1 h1du1   f  2 h2 du2   f  3 h3 du3

It follows that
1 f 1 f
 f  i  f  êi
hi ui hi ui
f 1 f ˆ f ˆ
In cylindrical coordinates, “del f ” f  rˆ   k
r r  z
f 1 f ˆ 1 f ˆ
In spherical coordinates, “del f ” f  rˆ  θ 22
r r  r sin  
Example
1 x  x
Show that  
x  x x  x 3

Solution: x  x   x1  x1  2   x2  x2  2   x3  x3  2

 1
x  x   xi  xi 
xi x  x
1   1 
It follows that    eˆ i
x  x xi  x  x 
1    xi  xi
 
2 
x  x eˆ i  eˆ
3 i
x  x  xi  x  x
1 x  x
  
x  x x  x 3
23
Example

Show that  fg   f g  g f

 g f
Solution:   fg   i   fg   f  g
xi xi xi

24
Homework: Work through Example 2 @ Page 22
Divergence of a Vector Function (or Field)
In Cartesian coordinates, “del dot F”
   
  F  Fx  Fy  Fz F  Fi
x y z xi
“del dot F” is invariant under rotation of the coordinate system:
 x j  
  F   Fi   Rik Fk   Rij Rik Fk
xi xi x j x j
  
 R Rik
T
ji Fk   R R  jk
T
Fk   jk Fk    F
x j x j x j
“del dot F” is a scalar function.
The Laplacian (or “del squared”) is the    f    2 f
divergence of the gradient:
In Cartesian coordinates,
2 f 2 f 2 f
 f  2  2  2
2
25
x y z
Divergence of a Vector Function (cont’)
The divergence is a measure of how the vector function F(x)
diverges, i.e., spreads out from x.
Let dV be an infinitesimal cubic volume centered at x, of size  x 
x , aligned with the Cartesian directions:
The flux of F outward through the boundary
surface dS of dV,
3
       2
dSF  dA  
i 1
 Fi  x  2 eˆ i   Fi  x  2 eˆ i  
3

 Fi  x   3
i 1 xi

    F  3

The divergence is equal to the flux per 1

unit volume through an infinitesimal   F  lim  F  dA
V 0 V S 26
closed surface:
Divergence of a Vector Function (cont’)
Consider an infinitesimal cubic volume
defined by displacements du1, du2, du3:

   F  h1du1  h2 du2  h3du3 

    F  dV   F  dA
dS


 F1h2 h3 u  du  F1h2 h3 u du2 du3
1 1 1


 F2 h3 h1 u
2  du 2 2

 F2 h3 h1 u du3 du1 
 F3 h1h2 u
3  du3

 F3 h1h2 u du1du2
3

  
  F1h2 h3  du1du2 du3   F2 h3h1  du2 du3du1   F3h1h2  du3du1du2
u1 u2 u3
1     
  F   F h h    F h h    F h h 
h1h2 h3  u1
1 2 3 2 3 1 3 1 2  27
u2 u3 
Divergence of a Vector Function (cont’)
1 f
Recall f  êi It follows that
hi ui
1    h2 h3 f    h3 h1 f    h1h2 f 
 f    f 
2
      
h1h2 h3  u1  h1 u1  u2  h2 u2  u3  h3 u3 
In cylindrical coordinates, “del dot F”
1 1  
F   rFr   F  Fz
r r r  z
1   f  1  2 f  2 f
“del squared f ”  f 
2
r   2 2  2
r r  r  r  z
In spherical coordinates,
1  2 1  1 
  F  2  r Fr    sin F   F
r r r sin   r sin  
1   2 f  1   f  1 2 f
 f  2 r
2
 2  sin    2 2 28
r r  r  r sin      r sin   2
Example
1
Show that  2
0
x  x
provided |x – x’| is not zero.

Solution: x  x   x1  x1  2   x2  x2  2   x3  x3  2

 1

xx   xi  xi 
xi x  x
  1  1    xi  xi
    
2 
x  x   
xi  x  x  x  x  xi  x  x
3

2  1 
   
1  xi  xi 
2

2 
3
xi  x  x  x  x
3
x  x
5

29
Example

Show that    f G   f  G  f   G


Solution:   f G   f Gi   f Gi  f  Gi
xi xi xi

30
Homework: Work through Example 3 @ Page 22
Curl of a Vector Function (or Field)
In Cartesian coordinates, “del cross F”
ˆi ˆj kˆ

  F   x  y  z    F  i  ijk Fk
x j
Fx Fy Fz
“del cross F” is a vector function:
 x 
   F i  ijk Fk  Rip R jq Rkr  pqr s  Rkt Ft 
xj xj xs
 
 Rip R jq R js Rkr Rkt  pqr Ft  Rip RqjT R js RrkT Rkt  pqr Ft
xs xs
 
 Rip  qs  rt  pqr Ft  Rip  pqr Fr  Rip    F  p
xs xq
The curl is a measure of vorticity, i.e., how the vector function
F(x) curls around the point x. 31
Curl of a Vector Function (cont’)
Let dS be an infinitesimal square ê j
centered at x, of size  x , aligned
with the Cartesian directions:
The circulation of F, i.e.,
the line integral of F,
counterclockwise around the
perimeter dP (ij ) of the square,
     
dPF ij dl  Fi  x  2 eˆ j   Fj  x  2 eˆ i  êi
The curl of F is equal to the
 
 Fi  x  eˆ j   F j  x  eˆ i  circulation of F per unit area
 2   2  around an infinitesimal loop:
 F j Fi  2 1
        F  k  2
 nˆ     F   lim  F  dl
 xi x j 
A0 A C

Here, C denotes a planar closed curve with area A and normal32

vector n̂ .
Curl of a Vector Function (cont’)
Consider an infinitesimal rectangular
area produced by displacements du1,
du2:
   F  3  h1du1  h2 du2 

    F  3 dA   F  dl
C

 
 F1h1 u2  F1h1 u2  du2 du1  
 F2 h2 u  du  F2 h2 u du 2
1 1 1

 
  F1h1  du2 du1   F2 h2  du1du2
u2 u1
eˆ 1 h2 h3 eˆ 2 h3h1 eˆ 3 h1h2
   F   u1  u2  u3
h1 F1 h2 F2 h3 F3 33
Curl of a Vector Function (cont’)
In cylindrical coordinates, “del 1  
   F r  Fz  F
cross F”: r  z
rˆ r ˆ kˆ r  
  F   r    z    F   Fr  Fz
z r
Fr rF Fz 1 1 
   F z   rF   F
In spherical coordinates, “del r r r 
cross F”: rˆ r 2 sin  θˆ r sin  ˆ r
  F   r    
Fr rF r sin F
1   
   F r    sin F   F 
r sin     

   F  1 1 
 
 
Fr   rF      F    1    rF    Fr 
r  sin   r  r  r  34
Example

Show that f  x   F x     f  x  F x 

Solution:  f  x   F x  i  ijk f  x  Fk  x

x j

  ijk  f  x  Fk  x 
x j

     f  x  F x  i

35
Example
Show that
  f  x   F x      f  x  F x    2 f  x  F x

Solution:
  f  x    2 f  x
    f  x   F  x   i   ijk  klm x Fm  x    kij  klm x x Fm  x
x j  l  j l

 2 f  x
  il  jm  im  jl  Fm  x
x j xl
 2 f  x
 F j  x   2 f  x  Fi  x
xi x j

Homework: Work through Example 4 @ Page 23 36

Homework: Work through Example 7 @ Page 35
Del Identities – Products of derivatives
The curl of the gradient of a scalar function is identically zero:
2 f
   f  i  ijk  0    f  0
x j xk

The divergence of the curl of a vector function is identically zero:

     2
     F    ijk Fk    ijk Fk  0
xi  x j  xi x j

    F     F    2 F

    2
     F  i  ijk   klm Fm    kij  klm Fm
x j  xl  x j xl
2 2
  il  jm  im  jl  Fm  F j   2 Fi 37
x j xl xi x j
 Integral theorems

Carl Friedrich Gauss George Gabriel Stokes

38
(April 30th 1777 – February 23rd 1855) (August 13th 1819 – February 1st 1903)
Gauss’s Theorem (divergence theorem)
The flux of a vector field F(x) through a
surface S with area element dA is the surface
integral of F x   nˆ , where n̂ is the unit normal  F  nˆ dA   F  dA
S S

vector at the point x on S:

The flux of a vector quantity outward through
a closed surface S is equal to the integral of
      3
F dA F d x
the divergence of the function in the enclosed S V

volume V,

 F
dS
 dA     F   3
39
Stokes’s Theorem
The circulation of a vector field F(x) around
a loop C with length element dl is the line
integral of F x   tˆ where t̂ is the unit tangent CF  t C
ˆdl  F  dl

vector at the point x on C:

The circulation of a vector function around a closed curve C is
equal to the flux of vorticity through any surface bounded by C,
ê j
C  F  dl      F   dA
S

ê i
Homework: Work through  
      2
F dl F k 40
dP  ij 
Examples 5, 6 @ Page 27
 The Helmholtz theorem

Hermann von Helmholtz 41

(August 31st 1821 – September 8th 1894)
Preliminaries
A vector function (or field) F(x) that has zero curl:
F  0 F  

is called irrotational.
A vector function (or field) G(x) that has zero divergence:
 G  0 G   A

is called solenoidal.
Any vector function (or field) H(x) can be written as the sum of
an irrotational function F(x) and a solenoidal function G(x):
H  FG H      A

The functions F and G are not necessarily unique. However, in

some cases, if suitable boundary conditions are imposed, then42the
decomposition is unique.
The Helmholtz theorem
Let H(x) be differentiable at all points in space, with curl and
divergence:
  H  c x    H  d  x

If d  x  and c(x) approach 0 faster than r –2

as r   , and H(x)
approaches 0 faster than r –1, then
H      A
where
d  x c x
 x    d 3 x A x    d 3 x
4 x  x 4 x  x
The integration region is all of space.
The Helmholtz theorem implies that if the divergence and curl of
a vector function (field) is known, then the function can be
determined uniquely (under the assumptions of the theorem).43
 Green’s function and
the Dirac delta function
Paul Adrien Maurice Dirac

George Green Paul Adrien Maurice44Dirac

(July 14th 1793 – May 31st 1841) (August 8th 1902 – October 20th 1984)
The Dirac delta function
The Dirac delta function (x) is a “generalized function” or
“Schwartz distribution” with the following defining property:
 
  x  f  x  dx  f  0
   x  dx  1


for every continuous function f(x).

The Dirac delta function can be (x) is an extremely singular
understood as the limit of a function:
sequence of more and more   0 for all x  0
 x  
sharply peaked functions:  0 when x  0
Exercise:

  x  a  f  x  dx  f  a 


45
The Dirac delta function (cont’)
The 3-dimensional Dirac delta function 3(x) is defined
analogously:
  
   x f  x d x    x   y   z  f  x, y, z  dxdydz  f  0,0,0  f  0
3 3
  

for every continuous function f (x).

  0 for all x  0
   x d x 1   x 
3 3 3

 0 when x  0
Exercise:

  3
 x  a  f  x  d 3
x  f  a

46
The Green’s Function of   2
1
  G  x  x    x  x
2 3
G  x  x  
4 x  x
along with the boundary condition that G approaches 0 at infinity.
Proof:
2 1  3
Consider the integral V    d x
 4 x  x 
in a spherical volume V of any radius around x’.
1 2 1  3 1  1  divergence
    d x       dA
4 V  x  x  4 S  x  x  theorem
1 1 1 1 1
  rˆ  dArˆ   rˆ  r drˆ   d  1
2

4 rS 2
4 rS 2
4 S

1 x  x r 1
Here, we recall    3  2 rˆ
x  x x  x 3
r r
In addition, when |x – x’|  0, then  2 1 x  x   0 47