Training Session on Energy Equipment

Furnaces and Refractories

Presentation from the Energy Efficiency Guide for Industry in Asia www.energyefficiencyasia.org

1 UNEP 2006

Training Agenda: Steam

Introduction
Type of furnaces and refractory materials

Assessment of furnaces
Energy efficiency opportunities

2 UNEP 2006

Introduction

What is a Furnace?
Equipment to melt metals
Casting Change shape Change properties

Type of fuel important

Mostly liquid/gaseous fuel or electricity

Low efficiencies due to

High operating temperature Emission of hot exhaust gases
3 UNEP 2006

Introduction

Chimney: remove combustion gases

Burners: raise or maintain chamber temperature

Furnace Components
Furnace chamber: constructed of insulating materials Hearth: support or carry the steel. Consists of refractory materials

Charging & discharging doors for loading & unloading stock

(The Carbon Trust)

4 UNEP 2006

Introduction

What are Refractories:

Materials that
Withstand high temperatures and sudden changes Withstand action of molten slag, glass, hot gases etc Withstand load at service conditions Withstand abrasive forces Conserve heat Have low coefficient of thermal expansion Will not contaminate the load
5 UNEP 2006

Introduction

Refractories
Refractory lining of a furnace arc

Refractory walls of a furnace interior with burner blocks

(BEE India, 2005)
6 UNEP 2006

Introduction

Properties of Refractories
Melting point
Temperature at which a test pyramid (cone) fails to support its own weight

Size
Affects stability of furnace structure

Bulk density
Amount of refractory material within a volume (kg/m3) High bulk density = high volume stability, heat capacity and resistance
7 UNEP 2006

Introduction

Properties of Refractories
Porosity
Volume of open pores as % of total refractory volume Low porosity = less penetration of molten material

Cold crushing strength

Resistance of refractory to crushing

Creep at high temperature

Deformation of refractory material under stress at given time and temperature
8 UNEP 2006

Introduction

Properties of Refractories
Pyrometric cones
Used in ceramic industries to test refractoriness of refractory bricks Each cone is mix of oxides that melt at specific temperatures

(BEE India, 2004)

Pyrometric Cone Equivalent (PCE)

Temperature at which the refractory brick and the cone bend Refractory cannot be used above this temp

9 UNEP 2006

Introduction

Properties of Refractories
Volume stability, expansion & shrinkage
Permanent changes during refractory service life Occurs at high temperatures

Reversible thermal expansion

Phase transformations during heating and cooling

10 UNEP 2006

Introduction

Properties of Refractories
Thermal conductivity
Depends on composition and silica content Increases with rising temperature

High thermal conductivity:

Heat transfer through brickwork required E.g. recuperators, regenerators

Low thermal conductivity:

Heat conservation required (insulating refractories) E.g. heat treatment furnaces
11 UNEP 2006

Training Agenda: Steam

Introduction
Type of furnaces and refractory materials

Assessment of furnaces
Energy efficiency opportunities

12 UNEP 2006

Type of Furnaces and Refractories

Type of Furnaces
Forging furnaces Re-rolling mill furnaces Continuous reheating furnaces

Type of Refractories Type of Insulating Materials

13 UNEP 2006

Type of Furnaces and Refractories

Classification Combustion Furnaces

Classification method
1. Type of fuel used

Types and examples

Oil-fired Gas-fired Coal-fired

2. Mode of charging materials

Intermittent / Batch Periodical Forging Re-rolling (batch/pusher) Pot Continuous Pusher Walking beam Walking hearth Continuous recirculating bogie furnaces Rotary hearth furnaces

3. Mode of heat transfer

Radiation (open fire place) Convection (heated through medium)

4. Mode of waste heat recovery

Recuperative Regenerative

14 UNEP 2006

Type of Furnaces and Refractories

Forging Furnace
Used to preheat billets/ingots Use open fireplace system with radiation heat transmission Temp 1200-1250 oC Operating cycle
Heat-up time Soaking time Forging time

Fuel use: depends on material and 15 number of reheats UNEP 2006

Type of Furnaces and Refractories

Re-rolling Mill Furnace Batch type

Box type furnace

Used for heating up scrap/ingots/billets

Manual charge / discharge of batches

Temp 1200 oC
Operating cycle: heat-up, re-rolling Output 10 - 15 tons/day Fuel use: 180-280 kg coal/ton material
16 UNEP 2006

Type of Furnaces and Refractories

Re-rolling Mill Furnace Continuous pusher type

Not batch, but continuous charge and discharge
Temp 1250 oC Operating cycle: heat-up, re-rolling Output 20-25 tons/day

Heat absorption by material is slow, steady, uniform

17 UNEP 2006

Type of Furnaces and Refractories

Continuous Reheating Furnaces

Continuous material flow

Material temp 900 1250 oC

Door size minimal to avoid air infiltration Stock kept together and pushed
Pusher type furnaces

Stock on moving hearth or structure

Walking beam, walking hearth, continuous recirculating bogie, rotary hearth furnaces
18 UNEP 2006

Type of Furnaces and Refractories

Continuous Reheating Furnaces

1. Pusher Furnace
Pushers on skids (rails) with water-cooled support push the stock Hearth sloping towards discharge end Burners at discharge end or top and/or bottom Chimney with recuperator for waste heat recovery
(The Carbon Trust, 1993) 19 UNEP 2006

Type of Furnaces and Refractories

Continuous Reheating Furnaces

2. Walking Beam Furnace
Stock placed on stationary ridges Walking beams raise the stock and move forwards Walking beams lower stock onto stationary ridges at exit Stock is removed Walking beams return to furnace entrance

(The Carbon Trust, 1993)

20 UNEP 2006

Type of Furnaces and Refractories

Continuous Reheating Furnaces

3. Walking Hearth Furnace
Refractory blocks extend through hearth openings Stock rests on fixed refractory blocks Stock transported in small steps walking the hearth Stock removed at discharge end

(The Carbon Trust, 1993)

21 UNEP 2006

Type of Furnaces and Refractories

Continuous Reheating Furnaces

4. Continuous Recirculating Bogie Furnace
Shape of long and narrow tunnel Stock placed on bogie (cart with wheels) with refractory hearth Several bogies move like train Stock removed at discharge end Bogie returned to entrance
(The Carbon Trust, 1993)

22 UNEP 2006

Type of Furnaces and Refractories

Continuous Reheating Furnaces

5. Rotary Hearth Furnace
Walls and roof remain stationary Hearth moves in circle on rollers Stock placed on hearth Heat moves in opposite direction of hearth Temp 1300oC

(The Carbon Trust, 1993)

23 UNEP 2006

Type of Furnaces and Refractories

Classification of Refractories
Classification method Chemical composition
ACID, which readily combines with bases BASIC, which consists mainly of metallic oxides that resist the action of bases NEUTRAL, which does not combine with acids nor bases Special Silica, Semisilica, Aluminosilicate Magnesite, Chrome-magnesite, Magnesitechromite, Dolomite Fireclay bricks, Chrome, Pure Alumina Carbon, Silicon Carbide, Zirconia Blast furnace casting pit

Examples

End use

Method of manufacture

Dry press process, fused cast, hand moulded, formed normal, fired or chemically bonded, unformed (monolithics, plastics, ramming mass, gunning castable, spraying)
24 UNEP 2006

Type of Furnaces and Refractories

Fireclay Refractories
Common in industry: materials available and inexpensive Consist of aluminium silicates Decreasing melting point (PCE) with increasing impurity and decreasing AL2O3

High Alumina Refractories

45 - 100% alumina

High alumina % = high refractoriness

Applications: hearth and shaft of blast furnaces, ceramic kilns, cement kilns, glass tanks
25 UNEP 2006

Type of Furnaces and Refractories

Silica Brick
>93% SiO2 made from quality rocks Iron & steel, glass industry Advantages: no softening until fusion point is reached; high refractoriness; high resistance to spalling, flux and slag, volume stability

Magnesite
Chemically basic: >85% magnesium oxide

Properties depend on silicate bond concentration

High slag resistance, especially lime and iron
26 UNEP 2006

Type of Furnaces and Refractories

Chromite Refractories
Chrome-magnesite
15-35% Cr2O3 and 42-50% MgO Used for critical parts of high temp furnaces Withstand corrosive slags High refractories

Magnesite-chromite
>60% MgO and 8-18% Cr2O3 High temp resistance Basic slags in steel melting Better spalling resistance

27 UNEP 2006

Type of Furnaces and Refractories

Zirconia Refractories
Zirconium dioxide ZrO2

Stabilized with calcium, magnesium, etc.

High strength, low thermal conductivity, not reactive, low thermal loss Used in glass furnaces, insulating refractory

Oxide Refractories (Alumina)

Aluminium oxide + alumina impurities Chemically stable, strong, insoluble, high resistance in oxidizing and reducing atmosphere Used in heat processing industry, crucible shaping 28
UNEP 2006

Type of Furnaces and Refractories

Monolithics
Single piece casts in equipment shape

Replacing conventional refractories

Advantages
Elimination of joints Faster application Heat savings Better spalling resistance Volume stability Easy to transport, handle, install Reduced downtime for repairs

29 UNEP 2006

Type of Furnaces and Refractories

Insulating Materials Classification

Material with low heat conductivity: keeps furnace surface temperature low Classification into five groups
Insulating bricks Insulating castables and concrete Ceramic fiber Calcium silicate Ceramic coatings (high emissivity coatings)
30 UNEP 2006

Type of Furnaces and Refractories

Castables and Concretes

Consist of
Insulation materials used for making piece refractories Concretes contain Portland or high-alumina cement

Application
Monolithic linings of furnace sections Bases of tunnel kiln cars in ceramics industry
31 UNEP 2006

Type of Furnaces and Refractories

Ceramic Fibers
Thermal mass insulation materials

Manufactured by blending alumina and silica

Bulk wool to make insulation products
Blankets, strips, paper, ropes, wet felt etc

Produced in two temperature grades

32 UNEP 2006

Type of Furnaces and Refractories

Ceramic Fibers
Remarkable properties and benefits
Low thermal conductivity Light weight Lower heat storage Thermal shock resistant Chemical resistance Mechanical resilience Low installation costs Ease of maintenance Ease of handling Thermal efficiency Lightweight furnace Simple steel fabrication work Low down time Increased productivity Additional capacity Low maintenance costs Longer service life High thermal efficiency Faster response

33 UNEP 2006

Type of Furnaces and Refractories

High Emissivity Coatings

Emissivity: ability to absorb and radiate heat Coatings applied to interior furnace surface:
emissivity stays constant Increase emissivity from 0.3 to 0.8 Uniform heating and extended refractory life Fuel reduction by up to 25-45%
34 UNEP 2006

Type of Furnaces and Refractories

High Emissivity Coatings

(BEE India, 2005)

35 UNEP 2006

Training Agenda: Steam

Introduction
Type of furnaces and refractory materials

Assessment of furnaces
Energy efficiency opportunities

36 UNEP 2006

Assessment of Furnaces

Heat Losses Affecting Furnace Performance

Heat input FURNACE
Heat in stock

Flue gas

Moisture in fuel

Hydrogen in fuel

Openings in furnace

Furnace surface/skin

Other losses
37 UNEP 2006

Assessment of Furnaces

Instruments to Assess Furnace Performance

Parameters to be measured
Furnace soaking zone temperature (reheating furnaces) Flue gas temperature

Location of measurement
Soaking zone and side wall

Instrument required
Pt/Pt-Rh thermocouple with indicator and recorder Chromel Alummel Thermocouple with indicator Hg in steel thermometer Low pressure ring gauge

Required Value
1200-1300oC

In duct near the discharge end, and entry to recuperator After recuperator Near charging end and side wall over the hearth

700oC max.

Flue gas temperature Furnace hearth pressure in the heating zone

300oC (max) +0.1 mm of Wc

Oxygen in flue gas

In duct near the discharge end

Fuel efficiency monitor for oxygen and temperature

5% O2

Billet temperature

Portable

Infrared pyrometer or optical pyrometer

38 UNEP 2006

Assessment of Furnaces

Calculating Furnace Performance

Direct Method

Thermal efficiency of furnace = Heat in the stock / Heat in fuel consumed for heating the stock Heat in the stock Q:
Q = m x Cp (t1 t2)
Q = Quantity of heat of stock in kCal m = Weight of the stock in kg Cp= Mean specific heat of stock in kCal/kg oC t1 = Final temperature of stock in oC 39 t2 = Initial temperature of the stock before it enters the furnace in oC UNEP 2006

Assessment of Furnaces

Calculating Furnace Performance

Direct Method - example

Heat in the stock Q =

Efficiency =

Heat loss = 100% - 25% = 75%

m = Weight of the stock = 6000 kg Cp= Mean specific heat of m x Cp (t1 t2) stock = 0.12 kCal/kg oC 6000 kg X 0.12 X (1340 40) t1 = Final temperature of 936000 kCal stock = 1340 oC t2 = Initial temperature of the stock = 40 oC (heat input / heat output) x 100 Calorific value of oil = 10000 [936000 / (368 x 10000) x 100 = 25.43% kCal/kg Fuel consumption = 368 kg/hr 40 UNEP 2006

Assessment of Furnaces

Calculating Furnace Performance

Indirect Method Heat losses
a) Flue gas loss = 57.29 %

b) Loss due to moisture in fuel

c) Loss due to H2 in fuel d) Loss due to openings in furnace e) Loss through furnace skin Total losses

= 1.36 %
= 9.13 % = 5.56 % = 2.64 % = 75.98 %

Furnace efficiency =
Heat supply minus total heat loss
100% 76% = 24%
41 UNEP 2006

Assessment of Furnaces

Calculating Furnace Performance

Typical efficiencies for industrial furnaces
Furnace type
1) Low Temperature furnaces
a. 540 980 oC (Batch type) b. 540 980 oC (Continous type) c. Coil Anneal (Bell) radiant type d. Strip Anneal Muffle 20-30 15-25 5-7 7-12

Thermal efficiencies (%)

2) High temperature furnaces

a. Pusher, Rotary b. Batch forge 7-15 5-10

3) Continuous Kiln
a. Hoffman b. Tunnel 25-90 20-80

4) Ovens
a. Indirect fired ovens (20 oC 370 oC) b. Direct fired ovens (20 oC 370 oC) 35-40 35-40

42 UNEP 2006

Training Agenda: Steam

Introduction
Type of furnaces and refractory materials

Assessment of furnaces
Energy efficiency opportunities

43 UNEP 2006

Energy Efficiency Opportunities

1. Complete combustion with minimum excess air 2. Proper heat distribution 3. Operation at the optimum furnace temperature 4. Reducing heat losses from furnace openings 5. Maintaining correct amount of furnace draft

6. Optimum capacity utilization

7. Waste heat recovery from the flue gases 8. Minimize furnace skin losses

9. Use of ceramic coatings

10.Selecting the right refractories
44 UNEP 2006

Energy Efficiency Opportunities 1. Complete Combustion with Minimum Excess Air

Importance of excess air
Too much: reduced flame temp, furnace temp, heating rate Too little: unburnt in flue gases, scale losses

Indication of excess air: actual air / theoretical combustion air Optimizing excess air
Control air infiltration Maintain pressure of combustion air Ensure high fuel quality Monitor excess air

45 UNEP 2006

Energy Efficiency Opportunities

2. Proper Heat Distribution

When using burners
Flame should not touch or be obstructed
No intersecting flames from different burners Burner in small furnace should face upwards but not hit roof More burners with less capacity (not one big burner) in large furnaces Burner with long flame to improve uniform heating in small furnace
46 UNEP 2006

Energy Efficiency Opportunities

3. Operate at Optimum Furnace Temperature

Operating at too high temperature:
heat loss, oxidation, decarbonization, refractory stress

Automatic controls eliminate human error

Slab Reheating furnaces 1200oC

Rolling Mill furnaces Bar furnace for Sheet Mill

Bogie type annealing furnaces

1200oC 800oC
650oC 750oC
47 UNEP 2006

Energy Efficiency Opportunities

4. Reduce Heat Loss from Furnace Openings

Heat loss through openings
Direct radiation through openings Combustion gases leaking through the openings Biggest loss: air infiltration into the furnace

Energy saving measures

Keep opening small Seal openings Open furnace doors less frequent and shorter
48 UNEP 2006

Energy Efficiency Opportunities

5. Correct Amount of Furnace Draft

Negative pressure in furnace: air infiltration Maintain slight positive pressure Not too high pressure difference: air ex-filtration

Heat loss only about 1% if furnace pressure is controlled properly!

49 UNEP 2006

Energy Efficiency Opportunities

6. Optimum Capacity Utilization

Optimum load
Underloading: lower efficiency Overloading: load not heated to right temp

Optimum load arrangement

Load receives maximum radiation Hot gases are efficiently circulated Stock not placed in burner path, blocking flue system, close to openings

Optimum residence time

Coordination between personnel

Planning at design and installation

50 stage UNEP 2006

Energy Efficiency Opportunities

7. Waste Heat Recovery from Flue Gases
Charge/Load pre-heating
Reduced fuel needed to heat them in furnace

Pre-heating of combustion air

Applied to compact industrial furnaces Equipment used: recuperator, selfrecuperative burner Up to 30% energy savings

Heat source for other processes

Install waste heat boiler to produce steam Heating in other equipment (with care!)
51 UNEP 2006

Energy Efficiency Opportunities

8. Minimum Furnace Skin Loss

Choosing appropriate refractories

Increasing wall thickness

Installing insulation bricks (= lower conductivity) Planning furnace operating times
24 hrs in 3 days: 100% heat in refractories lost 8 hrs/day for 3 days: 55% heat lost
52 UNEP 2006

Energy Efficiency Opportunities

9. Use of Ceramic Coatings

High emissivity coatings Long life at temp up to 1350 oC Most important benefits
Rapid efficient heat transfer Uniform heating and extended refractory life Emissivity stays constant

Energy savings: 8 20%

53 UNEP 2006

Energy Efficiency Opportunities

10. Selecting the Right Refractory

Selection criteria
Type of furnace
Type of metal charge Presence of slag Structural load of furnace

Stress due to temp gradient & fluctuations

Chemical compatibility

Area of application
Working temperatures Extent of abrasion and impact

Heat transfer & fuel conservation

Costs
54 UNEP 2006

Training Session on Energy Equipment

Furnaces and Refractories

THANK YOU FOR YOUR ATTENTION

55 UNEP 2006

Disclaimers and References

This PowerPoint training session was prepared as part of the project Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction from Industry in Asia and the Pacific (GERIAP). While reasonable efforts have been made to ensure that the contents of this publication are factually correct and properly referenced, UNEP does not accept responsibility for the accuracy or completeness of the contents, and shall not be liable for any loss or damage that may be occasioned directly or indirectly through the use of, or reliance on, the contents of this publication. UNEP, 2006. The GERIAP project was funded by the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (Sida) Full references are included in the textbook chapter that is available on www.energyefficiencyasia.org
56 UNEP 2006