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Machining
A material removal process in which a sharp cutting tool is used to mechanically cut away material so that the desired part geometry remains Most common application: to shape metal parts Machining is the most versatile and accurate of all manufacturing processes in its capability to produce a diversity of part geometries and geometric features (e.g. screw threads, gear teeth, flat surfaces) Casting can also produce a variety of shapes, but it lacks the precision and accuracy of machining
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Figure 22.1 - Machined parts are classified as: (a) rotational, or (b) nonrotational, shown here by block and flat parts
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Figure 22.2 - Generating shape: (a) straight turning, (b) taper turning, (c) contour turning, (d) plain milling, (e) profile milling
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Figure 22.3 - Forming to create shape: (a) form turning, (b) drilling, and (c) broaching
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Figure 22.4 - Combination of forming and generating to create shape: (a) thread cutting on a lathe, and (b) slot milling
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Turning
A single point cutting tool removes material from a rotating workpiece to generate a cylindrical shape The tool is fed linearly in a direction parallel to the axis of rotation Performed on a machine tool called a lathe Variations of turning that are performed on a lathe: Facing Contour turning Chamfering Cutoff Threading
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N=v/Do
Facing
Tool is fed radially inward to create a flat surface
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Contour Turning
Instead of feeding the tool parallel to the axis of rotation, tool follows a contour that is other than straight, thus creating a contoured form
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Chamfering
Cutting edge cuts an angle on the corner of the cylinder, forming a "chamfer"
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Cutoff
Tool is fed radially into rotating work at some location to cut off end of part (also called parting)
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Threading
Pointed form tool is fed linearly across surface of rotating workpart parallel to axis of rotation at a large feed rate, thus creating threads
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Contour turning
Form turning
Chamfering
Cutoff
Threading
Boring
Drilling
Knurling
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Lathe Machines
Most lathe machines are horizontal but vertical lathe machines are also used for jobs with large diameter relative to the length and for heavy work The size of the lathe is designated by swing and maximum distance between centers Swing is the maximum workpart diameter that can be rotated in the spindle Maximum distance between centers indicate the maximum length of a workpiece that can be mounted between headstock and tailstock centers 350 mm x 1.2 m lathe means a swing of 350 mm and maximum distance between centers of 1.2 m
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Figure 22.8 (a) mounting the work between centers using a "dog Appropriate for parts with large length to diameter ratios The tailstock center can be either live or dead
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Chuck
Figure 22.8 (b) three-jaw chuck Can also be four-jaw A self-centering chuck has a mechanism to move the jaws in or out simultaneously thus centering the work at the spindle axis
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Collet
Figure 22.8 (c) collet Collet is a tubular bushing with longitudinal slits running over half its length and equally spaced around its circumference
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Face Plate
Figure 22.8 (d) face plate for non-cylindrical workparts The face plates is equipped with custom-designed clamps for the particular geometry of the part
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Turret Lathe
A manually operated lathe in which the tailstock replaced by turret that holds up to six tools Tools rapidly brought into action by indexing the turret Tool post replaced by four-sided turret to index four tools Applications: high production work that requires a sequence of cuts on the part
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Turret Lathe
Figure 22.9 Schematic illustration of the components of a turret lathe. Note the two turrets: square and hexagonal (main). Source: American Machinist and Automated Manufacturing.
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Examples of Turrets
(b)
Figure 22.11 (a) A turret with six different tools for inside-diameter and outside-diameter cutting and threading operations. (b) A turret with eight different cutting tools. Source: Monarch Machine Tool Company.
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Chucking Machine
Uses chuck in its spindle to hold workpart No tailstock, so parts cannot be mounted between centers Cutting tool actions controlled automatically Operators job: to load and unload parts Applications: short, light-weight parts
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Bar Machine
Similar to chucking machine except collet replaces chuck, permitting long bar stock to be fed through headstock At the end of the machining cycle, a cutoff operation separates the new part Highly automated (the term automatic bar machine is often used) Applications: high production of rotational parts.
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Figure 22.9 - (a) Part produced on a six-spindle automatic bar machine; and (b) sequence of operations to produce the part: (1) feed stock to stop, (2) turn main diameter, (3) form second diameter and spotface, (4) drill, (5) chamfer, and (6) cutoff
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Figure 22.10 A computer numerical control lathe. Note the two turrets on this machine. Source: Jones & Lamson, Textron, Inc.
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Boring
Boring is similar to turning. It uses a single-point tool against a rotating workpart Difference between boring and turning: Boring is performed on the inside diameter of an existing hole Turning is performed on the outside diameter of an existing cylinder In effect, boring is an internal turning operation Machine tools used to perform boring operations are called boring machines Boring machines Horizontal or vertical - refers to the orientation of the axis of rotation of machine spindle
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Horizontal Boring
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Figure 22.12 - A vertical boring mill for large, heavy workparts Usually the workpart diameter is greater than its length Typical boring machine can position and feed several cutting tools simultaneously Page 38
Drilling
Machining operation used to create a round hole in a workpart Contrasts with boring which can only enlarge an existing hole Cutting tool called a drill or drill bit-a rotating cylindrical tool which has two cutting edges on its working end Customarily performed on a drill press
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N=v/D
MRR = D2fr / 4
where fr=Nf
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Figure 22.13 - Two hole types: (a) through-hole, and (b) blind hole
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Reaming
Used to slightly enlarge a hole, provide better tolerance on diameter, and improve surface finish The tool called reamer has straight flutes
Figure 22.14 Machining operations related to drilling: (a) reaming
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Tapping
Used to provide internal screw threads on an existing hole Tool called a tap
Counterboring
Provides a stepped hole, in which a larger diameter follows a smaller diameter partially into the hole Used to seat boltheads into a hole
Countersinking
Centre drilling
Spot facing
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Upright Drill
Stands on the floor
Bench Drill
Similar but smaller and mounted on a table or bench
Radial Drill
Large drill press designed for large parts Head can be positioned at significant distance from the column to accommodate large work
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GANG DRILL
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MULTIPLE SPINDLES
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Figure 22.29 A three-axis computer numerical control drilling machine. The turret holds as much as eight different tools, such as drills, taps, and reamers.
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Drill Jig
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Milling
A machining operation in which work is fed past a rotating tool with multiple cutting edges Axis of tool rotation is perpendicular to feed direction Creates a planar surface; other geometries possible either by cutter path or shape Owing to the variety of shapes possible and its high production rates, milling is one of the most versatile and widely used machining operations Other factors and terms: Milling is an interrupted cutting operation-the teeth of the milling cutter enter and exit work during each revolution Cutting tool called a milling cutter, cutting edges called "teeth" Machine tool called a milling machine
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Figure 21.3 - Two forms of milling: (a) peripheral milling, and (b) face milling
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Types of Milling
Peripheral Milling Slab milling Slotting Side milling Straddle milling Face milling Conventional face milling Partial face milling End milling Profile milling Pocket milling Surface contouring
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Slab Milling
The basic form of peripheral milling in which the cutter width extends beyond the workpiece on both sides
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Slotting
Width of cutter is less than workpiece width, creating a slot in the work
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Side milling
Straddle milling
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Milling Operations
Up milling or
Conventional milling
Down milling or
Climb milling
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Conventional milling
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End Milling
Cutter diameter is less than work width, so a slot is cut into part
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Profile Milling
Form of end milling in which the outside periphery of a flat part is cut
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Pocket Milling
Another form of end milling used to mill shallow pockets into flat parts
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Surface Contouring
Ball-nose cutter (rather than square-end cutter) is fed back and forth across the work along a curvilinear path at close intervals to create a three dimensional surface form
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Milling Cutter
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Milling Machines
Milling machines must provide a rotating spindle for the cutter and a table for fastening, positioning and feeding the workpart Types: Knee-and-column milling machine Universal milling machine Ram mill Bed type milling machine Planer type Tracer mills CNC milling machines
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Figure 22.23 (a) horizontal knee-and-column milling machine Suitable for peripheral milling
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Figure 22.23 (b) vertical knee-and-column milling machine Suitable for face milling
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Figure 22.24 (b) ram type knee-and-column machine; ram can be adjusted in and out, and toolhead can be swiveled
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Milling Machines
Figure 23.19 Schematic illustration of a five-axis profile milling machine. Note that there are three principal linear and two angular movements of machine components
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Machining Centers
Highly automated machine tool capable of performing multiple machining operations under CNC control in one setup with minimal human attention Typical operations are milling and drilling Three, four, or five axes Other features: Automatic tool-changing Pallet shuttles Automatic workpart positioning
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Figure 22.26 - Universal machining center (Cincinnati Milacron); highly automated, capable of multiple machining operations under computer control in one setup with minimal human attention
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Figure 22.27 - CNC 4-axis turning center (Cincinnati Milacron); capable of turning and related operations, contour turning, and automatic tool indexing, all under computer control.
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Mill-Turn Centers
Highly automated machine tool that can perform turning, milling, and drilling operations on a workpart General configuration of a turning center Can position a cylindrical workpart at a specified angle so a rotating cutting tool (e.g., milling cutter) can machine features into outside surface of part A conventional turning center cannot stop workpart at a defined angular position and does not possess rotating tool spindles
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Figure 22.28 - Operation of a mill-turn center: (a) example part with turned, milled, and drilled surfaces; and (b) sequence of operations on a mill-turn center: (1) turn second diameter, (2) mill flat with part in programmed angular position, (3) drill hole with part in same programmed position, and (4) cutoff
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