SOMA HISTO REVIEW

Nicole Baumgartner & Kris Nathan

Disclaimer!
This presentation is NOT meant to replace studying from

the power points given for lectures and your reading material!! This power point is NOT all-inclusive meaning that what is presented here is high(er)-yield and material that we remember being important / tested on but this isnt everything

Cell Cytoplasm & Cell Nucleus

Hematoxylin is not a true basic dye because it uses linker

molecules Massons trichrome is composed of Iron-hematoxylin, Acid Fuchsin, and Aniline Blue/Green; stains nuclei black, cyotplasm, keratin and muscle fibers red, and collagen and mucus blue/green 1 angstrom= 0.1 nm, 10 angstroms = 1nm Dyneins move to the negative ends of mct, kinesins move to the positive ends of mct Mallory bodies and accumulations of keratin are seen in alcoholic liver cirrhosis Kartageners syndrome: caused by a mutation in dynein motor; results in sterility, chronic sinusitis, and situs inversus Know the types of glycogen storage diseases!

Nucleus and Cell Cycle

Knowing apoptosis versus

necrosis
Cell lysis leads to intense

inflammation, accidental death = necrosis Programmed cell death, phagocytosis clears up debris = apoptosis

Stages of the cell cycle and

check points

Epithelium
Structure and function: ex- GI secretions are columnar cells Reversible conversion of one mature epithelial cell type to another

cell type, usually an adaptive response

most commonly columnar to squamous, seen in lungs of smokers Squamous to columnar seen in lower Barretts Esophagus

Microvilli Apical domain Internal core of actin filaments Core of actin bound to myosin 1 in plasma membrane Capped by villin Passive movement Stereocilia Apical domain Immotile microvilli Epididymis and hair cells of inner ear Anchored to plasma membrane by ezrin No villin Cytoplasmic bridges interconnect adjacent steocilia

Epithelium Cont.
Motile cilia: axoneme with 9+2 pattern; 9 mct doublets connected by

Dynein arms and Nexin

Associated structures include alar sheet, basal foot, and striated rootlets

Primary ciliary dyskinesia associated with Kartageners syndrome,

youngs sydrome Lateral domains have CAMs and terminal bars 3 major groups of occluding junctions: occludins, claudins, and JAMs
Separates / regulates transport between intercellular and intracellular spaces,

limits movement of structures within PM 2 types of anchoring junctions: zonula adherens, macula adherins Communication junctions aka gap junctions- transmembrane

channels, study with injection of dyes into cells or with electrical conductance Transmembrane channels formed by connexons; open and close with conformational changes in individual connexons

Epithelium Cont.
The lamida lucida is an artifact of fixation Basal lamina composed of reticular fibers (type III collagen) Attaches to connective tissue through
Anchoring fibrils- type IV collagen Fibrillin microfibrils Projections of the lamina densa

Marfans syndrome- mutation in fibrillin, rupture of wall of aorta

Dystrophic epidemolysis bullosa- type VII collagen mutation Cell to ECM junctions Anchoring junctions:
Focal adhesions: anchor actin fillaments of cytoskeleton into the ECM Hemidesmosomes: anchor intermediate filament of cytoskeleton to the

basement membrane

Merocrine vs. apocrine vs. halocrine

Connective Tissue
Know difference between resient and transient types of CT Ex- lymphocytes? Wandering Adipocytes? Resident Plasma cells: derived from B cells and produce 1 specific antibody Nucleus displays cartwheel / clock face pattern Collagen is the most abundant type of CT fiber (68nm banding pattern) Collagen types [1 (I)]2 2(I) and [1 (II)]3 are heterotrimeric and

homotrimeric respectively Osteogenesis imperfecta:

Type I collagen Blue sclera / hearing loss glass bone disease

Ehlers-Danlos syndrome Mutation in type III collagen Hyperflex joints, hyperextend skin, vascular and organ rupture Alports syndrome Type IV collagen Hematuria, progressive hearing loss, ocular lesions

Connective Tissue Cont.

Mucous connective tissue Found in umbilical cord: Whartons Jelly Fibroblasts and few mesenchymal cells Loose CT Sites of inflammatory and immune reactions, most cells are of wandering / transient type Dense Irregular connective tissue Mostly collagen fibers oriented in various directions Little ground substance and sparse cells (fibroblasts) strength and stress resistance

Muscle
Hennemanns size principle: motor units recruited in order of smallest

to largest [ I IIA IIB] Know the different layers of muscle: ex: a fascicle is a group of muscle fibers surrounded by loose CT layer Thin filament: actin plus tropomyosin and troponin; acts as switch for contraction Know which areas of muscle shorten with muscle contraction: I and H Alpha-actinin: actin binding protein found in Z line, anchors thin filaments to Z line Titin: anchors thick filaments to Z line Desmin: intermediate filament protein that surrounds myofibrils / sarcomeres at the level of the Z line Conduction system: Ach causes influx of sodium which depolarizes sarcolemma, conducted deep into fiber by T tubules, depolarization activates volatge gated sensors which cause release of calcium from the terminal cisternae

Muscle Cont.
The energy generated by hydrolysis of ATP into ADP and

Pi recocks the myosin head (bending or cocked phase) Dystrophin: anchors the thin filaments in a muscle fiber to the sarcolemma and the basal lamina
Deletions cause Duchenne and Becker Muscular Dystrophy

Gowers sign: use arms to get up

Conduction system of the heart is all muscle cells, not

nerve cells Dense bodies: contractile elements composed of Alphaactinin that attach the contractile apparatus to the sarcolemma

Cartilage and Bone

Cartilage is avascular= very limited/no healing Know the different molecular recipes that give rise to each

type of cartilage
Ex: hyaline cartilage characterized by tyoe II collagen gibers,

proteoglycans and multiadhesive glycoproteins

Hylaine cartilage is involved in degenerative diseases such as

osteoarthritis, known to break down as we age When the perichondrium is NOT present: around fibrocartilage and when the cartilage contacts with bone such as articular surfaces Elastic cartilage does not stain with H + E, stains with resorcinfuchsin or crcein, does not calcify with aging SOX-9 triggers differentiation of chondroprogenitor mesenchymal cells into chondroblasts When the chondroblast becomes totally surrounded by matrix it then becomes known as chondrocyte

Cartilage
Bone matrix made of hydroxyapatite Blood calcium levels are regulated by PTH which raises blood

calcium but stimulating bone resorption (increases osteoclast activity) and calcitonin which reduces blood calcium by suppressing bone resorption and increasing osteoid calcification (decreases osteoclast activity) Where do you find spongy vs. compact bone
Epiphysis and metaphysis= spongy Diaphysis= compact

In adults: red marrow restricted to areas of spongy bone, especially in

sternum and illiac crest Death in osteocyte results in bone resorption Know the stages of endochondral ossification!! Know the layers of the growth plate!! Rickets and Osteomalacia: defective matrix mineralization Vitamin A excess can lead to brittle bones Osteosarcoma: will see Codmans triangle

Nerve Tissue
Axon hillock kicks off action potential: sends message Know chemical vs. electrical synapses (gap junctions direct cell-to

cell communications) Neuronal communication requires voltage gated Calcium channels to open Fast neuronal transport mediated by kinesin bound to mct, carries large structures Bodies of sensory neurons located in DRG and are NOT found in spinal cord, sensory neurons are pseudounipolar Motor neurons are multipolar and cell body is in ventral horn Know the functions of the different types of glial cells
Ex:Astrocytes regulat K+ concentration of CNS and uptake of glutamate

Satellite cells have been implicated in the persistence of chronic pain Clefts of Schmidt-Lanterman from cytoplasm displacement as

Schwann cell wraps around an axon

Nerve Tissue Cont.

Neurodegenerative diseases characterized by loss of

substantia nigra dopaminergic neurons ALS characterized by progressive weakness, muscle atrophy and fasiculations; death of upper and lower motor neurons in the motor cortex, brain stem, and SC

Blood
99% RBC, 1% WBC (which cell types does each of these

include?) Serum vs. plasma- whats the difference? Serum has no clotting factors Type of hemoglobin prevalent in adults: alpha2beta2 Sickle cell anemia: pont mutation in gene encoding beta globin chain: valine for glutamic acid at position 6 Most common leukocyte, most numerous in initial response to infection: neutrophil Selectin on neutrophil mediate loose binding to endothelium and allow for rolling and transmigration Has a lobed nucleus which is obscured by stained granules, involved in hypersensitivity and anaphylaxis = basophil NK cells are mediators of innate immunity

Blood Cont.
Largest WBC in a smear will be monocytes/macrophages, with

weakly basophilic cytoplasm Reticulocytes are immature RBC, increased when large numbers of erythrocytes enter blood stream (ex: blood loss) Immature neutrophils are band neutrophils T-cells originate in the bone marrow and mature in the thymus CD4+ recognize MHC class II, CD8+ recogize MHC class I Pathogens that are carried to the lymph nodes enter via afferent lymphatic vessels MALT is found within the lamina propria Follicular dendritic cells are not APCs (no MHC II): bind antigen-antibody complexes via Fc receptors on surface for B cell activation

Blood Cont.
High Endothelial Venules function to concentrate lymph

by transporting fluid and electrolytes from afferent vessels to blood stream Thymus (where T cells mature) is mostly replaced by adipose tissue at puberty but can be restimulated under conditions that demand rapid T-cell proliferation, trabeculae form lobules and each has an outer cortex and lighter medulla Thymus barrier prevents lymphocytes from encountering antigens The spleen is the largest lymphatic organ, collects antigen from the blood

Respiratory System
Nasal cavities: Lateral wall contains fold known as nasal conchae or nasal turbinates Allows for better conditioning of the air Lined with respiratory epithelium Brush cells have small microvilli which likely serve as sensory receptors with

afferent nerve fibers found on their basal surfacesindicate air quality Basal cells are short rounded cells that sit on the BM and can undergo mitosis to give rise to other cell types as needed Bowmans olfactory glands are branched tubuloalveolar serous glands, provides medium to dissolve odorants Ventricular folds (aka false vocal cords) are lined with ciliated pseudostratified squamous epithelium and have serous glands in lamina propria Vocal folds (aka true vocal cords) lined with stratified squamous epithelium and contain a vocal ligament and skeletal muscle Wall of trachea has 4 layers: My Son Can Act (mucosa, submucosa, cartilagenous layer, adventitia) The adventitia is the connective tissue that binds trachea to surrounding structures

Respiratory Cont.
Bronchus has one additional layer, layer 2 = muscularis Man, My

Son Can Act Clara cells secrete lipoprotein that prevents luminal adhesion Ratio of Cilia to Clara cells changes as you move from terminal bronchiole to alveoli (more clara cells near alveoli, more cilia near terminal bronchiole Pores of Khon: allow for more distal alveoli to become aeratedimportant with obstructive diseases (allows body to compensate) Most abundant surfactant protein? Surfactant protein A- modulates immune response to fungi, bacteria and viruses Know the mechanisms of patholgy in COPD and Emphysema: which one has less surface area for gas exchange? (Emphysema) and which one has dynamic hyperinflation of the lung? (COPD) Smoking causes what change in respiratory epithelium? Stratified non-keratinized squamous epithelium to simple columnar epithelium!!

Cardiovascular
Pericardium is the sac that surrounds the heart Mesothelial cells are squamous epithelium responsible for producing lubricating fluid Heart valves are composed of 3 layers Spongiosa is loose CT layer on atrial side of valve, dampens vibrations with closure Sympathetic: Levels T1-T4-6 Norepinephrine Tachycardia and dilation of coronary arteries Parasympathetic Vagus nerve Acetylcholine Bradycardia and constriction of coronary arteries Baroreceptors, Volume Receptors, and Chemoreceptors: Know where they are located and

what they sense!

Ex: volume receptors located in walls of atria, provide info about cardiac distention

Know the functions of endothelial cells as it pertains to important role in blood homeostasis Damage to endothelial cells produces prothrombogenic vonWillebrand factor NO produced by endothelial cells causes vasodilation, decreasing blood pressure Endothelin causes influx of Calcium which increases contraction and blood pressure Arterioles are flow regulators to capillary beds In hypertension: smooth muscle cells hypertrophy thickening the tunica media In atherosclerosis: lesions of foamy macrophages deposit in the tunica intima

Digestive System
Know general pattern of increasing # of goblet cells and decreasing # of villi as you move

down the alimentary tract Amylase and lipase in mouth (from parotid and Von Ebners glands respectively) begin digestion of carbohydrates and lipids in mouth No digestion takes place in oropharynx and esophagus (neutral mucus) Esophageal-cardiac junction is an abrupt transition between esophagus and beginning of stomach; marked by abrupt change from stratified NK squamous to simple columnar (respectively) To identify stomach: note that gastric glands do not project beyond the muscularis mucosa Know which digestive enzymes chief cells secrete APUD cells secrete off of their basal surfaces Zollinger-Ellison syndrome caused by a gastrin secreting tumor in duodenum or pancreatic islet, ulcer forms from excessive HCl secretion Know the adaptations to increase surface area: 3X = plicae circularis, 10x = villi, 20x= microvilli (found all over small intestine) Cells of intercalated ducts secrete bicarb and water, acinar cells secrete digestive enzymes Absorption of products in digestive tract: peptides, carbs, and small lipids enter blood supply while long chain FA as chylomicrons enter lymphatic supply called lacteals

Digestive System Cont.

Colon: Cypts but NO villi Large # goblet cells Outer longitudinal layer of SM modified to form teniae coli Chrons disease Occurs in any region but usually illeum Skip lesions => cobblestone appearance Lower right quadrant pain String sign Ulcerative colitis Occurs in colon / rectum Usually restricted to mucosa / submucosa Pectinate line in anus demonstrates tissues from 2 different

embryonic origins

Accessory Organs of Digestive System

Know the hormone regulators of Exocrine pancreatic secretions! Specifically

which cells secrete them and what are their functions What are the mechanisms that prevent autodigestion of the pancreas? Understand the organization of the hepatic lobule Hepatic stellate cells are vitamin A storing cells that transform into collagen secreting cells after insult, responsible for liver cirrhosis In the classic hepatic lobule: drains blood from the portal vein and hepatic artery to the hepatic or central vein
Also understand the role / function of portal lobule (bile) and portal acinus

In the portal acinus, which zone will be most injured from toxin in blood and which

one will be most injured from lack of blood supply?

Zone 1 and 3 respectively

Bile canaliculi are not about by epithelium just by hepatocyte cell membrane, tight

junctions prevent bile from leaking out Gall bladder folds appear as artifactual spaces known as Rokitansky-Aschoff cypts, if these extend into muscularis mucosa they are pre-pathological Important in concentration of bile: Sodium/potassium ATPases Know the different types of gallstones, what each is made of, and what pathological conditions predispose you to these stones Know the 3 ways a person can become jaundiced

Urinary System
Know the anatomical structure of the kidney- Things merge to form other parts of the kidney Ex: Major calyces form renal pelvis Renal a. interlobal a. arcuate a. interlobular a. afferent arterioles Branching to become arcuate a. happens at the corticomedullary junction (the base) Nephron= functional unit of the kidney Bowmans capsule has 2 layers: visceral and parietal epithelial layers Parietal = simple squamous Visceral= podocytes You will only see renal corpuscles in the cortex Mesangial cells are found within the GBM, play an important role in phagocytosis and endocytosis,

structural support, and distention modulation Proximal Convoluted Tubule:

Sodium-potassium ATPase pumps- reabsorption of sodium is driving force for reabsorption of water Adjusts pH via reabsorption of HCO3- and secretion of organic acids/bases

Thin ascending loop cells produce uromodulin which is an important influence in NaCl reabsorption and

concentrating ability Urine flow: urine leaves collection tubules area cribosa, enter minor calyx, drains into major calyx, empties into renal pelvis Urothelium, a type of transitional epithelium, lines the passages leading from the kidneys Ureters made of 3 muscle layers: longtudinal, circular, and longitudinal (outer longitudinal is only present at distal end) Uroplakins are responsible for distention capabilities of the bladder (folds of epithelium that can distend)

Endocrine System
Know the difference Endocrine vs. paracrine vs. apocrine Know 3 classes of hormones and where they are secreted and where

they typically act:

Ex: steroid secreted into blood, transported via plasma proteins, act in nucleus

of target cell Anterior lobes of pituitary are derivatives of Rathkes pouch; know the

3 pars Know the table with all of the anterior/posterior pituitary hormones (production site and function)
produce IGF-1, results in progenitor cell division and body growth

Ex: growth hormone from somatotropes stimulates liver and other organs to

Anterior pituitary histologically identifiable with colloid filled follicles Know the hormones of the hypothalamus and which cell types they

inhibit/cause release of
Ex: somatostatin inhibits secretion of GH

Melatonin from pinealocytes is responsible for regulation of circadian

rhythms

Endocrine Cont.
Follicular cells produce T3 and T4, Parafolicular cells produce

calcitonin (know the functions of these hormones) Iodination of thyroglobulin occurs in the colloid Principal cells of parathyroid produce PTH- know its role in calcium regulation Know the layers of the adrenal gland: Salty-Sweet-Sex
Zona glomerulosa: mineralocorticoids, under control of RAA system Zona fasciculata: glucocorticoids, know their actions at specific tissues Zona reticularis: weak androgens (mainly DHEA)

Endocrine Pancreas: Alpha cells= glucagon Beta cells= insulin Delta cells= somatostatin

Male Reproductive
Enclosed in dense CT called the tunica albuginea Each lobule consist of 1-4 seminiferous tubules surrounded interstitium Interstitium houses blood vessels, nerves, lymphatics and Leydig cells Know the number of cells present at each stage of spermatogenesis and know

haploid vs. diploid

At which stage are spermatids no longer connected?

Know the key events in spermiogenesis What allows germ cells to develop in absence of circulating antibodies, Formed by

tight junctions of adjacent Sertoli cells? Blood-testis barrier

Know the role of LH, FSH, and inhibin in spermatogenesis Sertoli cells:
Nourish spermatozoa, concentration of testosterone, blood testis barrier

Interstitial cells of Leydig secrete testosterone essential for spermatogenesis Ductus epididymis:
Lining is pseudostratified columnar with stereocilia; function is to absorb testicular fluid secretes glycerophosphocholine, a glycoprotein- prevents capacitation of spermatozoa

Male Repro Cont.

Seminal vesicles: lined by a pseudostratified columnar epithelium is highly folded

into a labyrinth
Prostate secretes fluid rich in serine proteases (PSA), fibrinolysin, citric acid and

seminalplasmin, serve to liquefy semen

BPH= hypertrophy of glands in transitional zone Prostatic cancer= malignant growth in peripheral glands Cowpers glands: Mucus produced by glands precedes release of semen and

may have a lubricating function

Corpora cavernosa are surrounded by a dense band of connective tissue called

the tunica albuginea

Urethra courses through corpus spongiosum Point and Shoot: parasymp = point, sympathetic = shoot

S 2, 3, 4 keeps your stuff up off the floor!

Sympathetic (L1-2) closure of internal urethral sphincter Parasympathetic (S2-4) : Contraction of urethral muscles Spinal reflex (S2-4): Forceful contraction of the ishiocavernosus and bulbocavernosus muscles of the pelvic floor aid in ejaculation (propulsion of sperm).