HYDRAULICS

BAA 2723
FLOW IN OPEN CHANNEL
INTRODUCTION
Open Channel
A conduit in which a liquid flows with a free
surface
any flow path with a free surface, which
means that the flow path is open to the
atmosphere
Open channel hydraulics
The study of the physics of fluids flow in
conveyances in which the following fluids
forms a free surface and is driven by gravity



Types of Channel
There are 2 types of open channel; natural
and artificial
Natural open channel are rivers, creeks and
.... (have irregular cross section)
All channels which have been developed by
natural processes and have not been significant
improved by humans
Artificial open channel (human construction)
are flumes and canals.
All channels which have been developed by
human efforts
Within the broad category of artificial, open
channel are following subdivisions


Types of Flow
Open channel flow can be classified into
many types and described in various way.
The types of flow encountered in open
channel are classified with respect to time,
space, viscosity, density and gravity.

Next
Geometric Characteristics of Channels
Parameter Symbol Definition
Depth of flow y Depth from the bottom of channel to water surface
Depth of section d Depth of flow, normal to water flowing
Stage z Distance from water surface to channel's bed
Upper width T Width of water surface
Area A Area of cross section normal to water flowing
Wetted parameter P
Hydraulics radius R Ratio of area to wetted parameter, R=A/P
Hydraulics depth D Ratio of area to upper width, D = A/T
d = y cos u
u = angle between slope of channel and channel's bed
If u too small, y ~ d
Next
Free Surface
Essentially an interface between two fluids of
different density
An interface between the moving liquid and
overlying fluid medium and will have constant
pressure
In the case of atmosphere, the density of air is
much lower than the density for liquid such as
water. In addition the pressure is constant.
In the case of flowing liquid, the motion is usually
caused by gravitational effects and the pressure
distribution within the fluid is generally
hydrostatic (flows are almost turbulent and
unaffected by surface tension).

Back
Category of artificial open channel
Prismatic: A prismatic channel has both a constant cross-
sectional shape and bottom slope. Channels which do not meet
this criteria are termed non prismatic.
Canal: the term canal refer to a rather long channels may be
either unlined or lined with concrete, cement, grass, wood,
bituminous materials or artificial membrane.
Flume: In practice, the term refers to a channels built above the
ground surface to convey a flow across a depression. Flumes
are usually constructed of wood, metal, masonry or concrete.
The term flumes is also applied to laboratory channels
constructed for basic and applied research.
Chute & Drop: A chute is a channel having a steep slope. A
drop channel also has a steep slope but is much shorter than a
chute.
Culvert: A culvert flowing only partially full is an open channel
primarily used to convey a flow under highways, railroad
embankments or runways.
Back
River & Creek
Natural Open Channel
Back
All natural channels generally have varying cross-sections and consequently
are non prismatic.
A nonprismatic channel varies in both the cross-sectional shape and bed slope
between any two selected points along the channel length
back
Prismatic
Rideau canals




Welland canal
Back
Canals
Flumes
Back
Chute & Drop
Back
Culvert
Back



Time


Space


Flow in Open Channel
Steady Flow
Uniform Flow Non Uniform Flow
Rapidly varied Flow Gradually Varied Flow
Unsteady Flow
Back
Next
The following classification is made according to
the change in flow depth with respect to time and space.

The primary criteria of classification is the variation of the
depth of flow y in time, t and space, x.
Time
a flow can be classified as being:
Steady - which implies that the depth and velocity do not
change with time (oy/ot = 0)
Unsteady - which implies that the depth and velocity vary
with time (oy/ot 0)
Space
a flow can be classified as being:
Uniform if the depth and velocity of flow do not vary with
distance (oy/ox = 0)
Non uniform (varied flow) - if the depth and velocity vary with
distance (oy/ox 0)
Rapidly varied the depth of flow changes rapidly over a
relatively short distance such as is the case with hydraulic jump
Gradually varied (GVF) the depth of flow changes rather slow
with distance such as is the case of a reservoir behind the dam



Next
Back
Steady and Non-Steady Flow
Unsteady
Steady
Depth, y
Time, t
back
Uniform and Non-Uniform Flow
V1
V2
A1 A2
V1
A1
V2
A2
Uniform Flow
Non-Uniform Flow
back
Viscosity
Depending on the ratio of the inertial forces to the viscous forces, a flow may be
classified as laminar, transitional or turbulent
The basis for this classification is a dimensionless parameter known as the
Reynolds number

R
e
= vL/u
v = characteristic velocity of flow,
often taken as the average velocity of flow
L = characteristic length
u = kinematics viscosity = /
= dynamic viscosity
= density






In open channel flow, the characteristic length commonly used is the hydraulic radius, R which is
the ratio of the flow area, A to the wetted perimeter, P.
R
e
< 2000 Laminar flow
2000 < R
e
<4000 Transitional flow
4000 < R
e
Turbulent flow


Next
Laminar flow
one in which the viscous forces are so large relative
to the inertial forces that the flow is dominated by the
viscous forces
In such a flow, the fluid particles move along definite,
smooth paths in a coherent fashion
Transitional flow
One which can be classified as neither laminar nor
turbulent.
In open channel flow, the characteristic length
commonly
Turbulent flow
The inertial forces are large relative to the viscous
forces; hence, the inertial forces dominate the
situation

Back Next
Next
Back
Turbulent Flow
Density
Flow are classified as homogeneous or stratified on the
basis of the variation of density within the flow.
Homogeneous All spatial dimensions the density of
flow is constant
Stratified The density of the flow varies in any direction
The absence of a density gradient in most natural open-
channel flows demonstrates that either the velocity of
flow is sufficient to completely mix the flow with respect
to density or that the phenomena which tend to induce
density gradients are unimportant.
The importance of density stratification is that when
stable density stratification exists, i.e., density increase
with depth or lighter fluid overlies heavier fluid, the
effectiveness of turbulence as mixing mechanism is
reduced.
Next
A commonly accepted measurement of the
strength of the density stratification is the
gradient Richardson number
R
i
= g (o/oy)
(ov/oy)
2
Where;
g = acceleration of gravity
= fluid density
y = vertical coordinate
ov/oy = gradient of velocity in vertical direction
o/oy = gradient of density in vertical direction

When ov/oy is small relative to o/oy , R
i
is large and the
stratification is stable.
When ov/oy is large relative to o/oy, R
i
is small and Ri
0, the flow system approaches a homogenous or natural
condition.






Back
Gravity
Depending on the magnitude of the ratio of
inertial forces to gravity forces, a flow is
classified as subcritical, critical or supercritical.
The parameter on which this classification is
based is known as the Froude Number:
Fr = v
(gL)
1/2
Where; v = a characteristic velocity of flow
L = a characteristic of length
= hydraulic depth (D) = A/T
A = flow area
T = width of free surface

Next
If Fr = 1, the flow is in a critical state with the
inertial and the gravitational forces in
equilibrium.
If Fr < 1, the flow is in a subcritical state and the
gravitational forces are dominant.
If Fr > 1, the flow is in supercritical state and the
inertial forces are dominant.
The denominator of the Froude number is the
celerity of an elementary gravity wave in shallow
water.
Through theory of Mechanics of Wave;
c = gy
Where c = celerity
g = gravity
y~ d = the depth f flow which is a value
assumption if the channel is wide
Next
With this observation, the following interpretation
can be applied to the subcritical and supercritical
of flow:
When the flow is subcritical, F<1, the velocity of flow
is less than the celerity of an elementary gravity
wave. Therefore, such a wave can propagate
upstream against the flow and upstream areas are in
hydraulic communication with the downstream areas.
When the flow is supercritical, F>1, the velocity of
flow is greater than the celerity of an elementary
gravity wave. Therefore, such a wave can propagate
upstream against the flow and the upstream areas of
the channel are not in hydraulic communication with
the downstream areas.


Back
Example
i. Water flows at a depth of 1.2 m in a trapezoidal
channel with a bottom width of 3.05 m and side
slopes of 1V:3H. If the discharge is 11.33 m
3
/s,
determine the velocity, hydraulic depth, and
Froude number.

ii. Then, If the Froude number is 1.2 for the same
hydraulic depth as before, compute the velocity
and discharge in the channel.