EE09 L 09 ENERGY AUDITING, CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT

Murali Krishnan K Asst. Professor Dept. Of EEE AWH Engg. College Lecture -3 Electrical system

Electricity Billing

Cost of Electricity Cost/kWH

Need for Electricity Billing

The cost of purchasing the primary energy and converting it to electricity; The cost of transporting electricity around a region or country; The cost of distributing electricity to the customer; and The cost involved in meter reading, billing and managing customers accounts.
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Electricity demand profile (Load Curve)

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Solutions

Build more power stations and reinforce their transmission and distribution networks, which is a very costly solution; or Discourage their customers from consuming large amounts of electricity at times when electricity demand is high.

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Electricity tariffs

Some utility companies meter their customers in kW and kWh rather than kVA and kVAh. if a utility company meters its customers in kW, then it must levy an additional reactive power charge in kVArh. This ensures that the utility is paid for all the power it supplies to the site, and not penalized for the customers poor power factor. Types of Electricity Tariff

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Domestic tariffs Block electricity tariff Maximum demand tariff

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Domestic electricity tariffs

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Block electricity tariff

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Time of day metering/Time-of-use pricing

Time of Day metering (TOD), also known as Time of Usage (TOU) or Seasonal Time of Day (SToD), metering involves dividing the day, month and year into tariff slots Higher rates at peak load periods and low tariff rates at offpeak load periods. While this can be used to automatically control usage on the part of the customer (resulting in automatic load control), It is often simply the customers responsibility to control his own usage, or pay accordingly (voluntary load control). This also allows the utilities to plan their transmission infrastructure appropriately
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Maximum demand tariff

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Typical Seasonal Time of Day Tariff

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Problems

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Solutions

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Kerala Electricity Tariff

Up to 40 units Rs. 1.5 per unit 41 to 80 units Rs. 2.2 per unit 81 to 120 units Rs. 3 per unit 121 to 150 units Rs. 3.80 per unit 151 to 200 units Rs. 5.30 per unit 201 to 300 units Rs. 6.50 per unit Up to 350 units uniform rate of Rs. 5 per unit (no slabs, flat tariff) Up to 400 units uniform rate of Rs. 5.5 per unit (flat tariff) Up to 500 units uniform rate of Rs. 6 per unit (flat tariff) Above 500 units uniform rate of Rs. 7 per unit (flat tariff)
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Load management of electricity

The true cost of electricity production varies with demand on the network, and that through the use of pricing mechanisms such as the pool it is possible to introduce real-time electricity pricing. The load factor for any given period represents the percentage of time for which plant and equipment operates during that period.

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From the utility companies point of view organizations which possess a high load factor are potentially more desirable customers, since they will be buying more electrical energy for a given amount of investment in generation and distribution equipment.

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Supply side and demand side

The collective term for the operations performed by utility companies is the supply side, whereas energy consumption by customers is referred to as the demand side

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supply-side measure since the solution lies wholly with the utility company demand-side measure since the solution to the problem lies with the customer. Through management of the demand side in this way it is possible for utility companies to utilize their resources efficiently and thus achieve substantial cost savings

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Energy demand management

Energy demand management, also known as demand side management (DSM), is the modification of consumer demand for energy through various methods such as financial incentives and education. Usually, the goal of demand side management is to encourage the consumer to use less energy during peak hours, or to move the time of energy use to off-peak times such as nighttime and weekends. Peak demand management does not necessarily decrease total energy consumption, but could be expected to reduce the need for investments in networks and/or power plants for meeting peak demands. An example is the use of energy storage units to store energy during off-peak hours and discharge them during peak hour
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DSM programs to encourage customers to conserve energy, and persuade as many as possible to shift their day-time load to the nighttime. In the DSM programs include such measures as financial support for feasibility studies, free advice on techniques, capital grants towards the cost of new equipment, and even the free issue to customers of low energy light bulbs. it more economical to persuade their customers to conserve energy, rather than be forced to build new generating plant.
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For e.g..- The cost of constructing new generating capacity to be in the region of $1200$1500/kW, which compared very poorly with the maximum of $400/kW of electricity saved

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Power factor

The power factor of an AC electrical power system is defined as the ratio of the real power flowing to the load, to the apparent power in the circuit

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What is PF ?

Most plant loads are Inductive and require a magnetic field to operate:

Motors Transformers Florescent lighting

The magnetic field is necessary, but produces no useful work The utility must supply the power to produce the magnetic field and the power to produce the useful work: You pay for all of it! These two types of current are the ACTIVE and REACTIVE components
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Similarly, motors require REACTIVE power to set up the magnetic field while the ACTIVE power produces the useful work (shaft horsepower). Total Power is the vector sum of the two & represents what you pay for:

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For example, to get 1 kW of real power, if the power factor is unity, 1kVA of apparent power needs to be transferred (1 kW 1 = 1kVA). At low values of power factor, more apparent power needs to be transferred to get the same real power. To get 1 kW of real power at 0.2 power factor, 5kVA of apparent power needs to be transferred (1 kW 0.2 = 5kVA).
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Types of loads

Linear loads

Loads like (resistive, inductive, capacitive, motors) loads having power electronic equipment's E.g. Motors driven by drives

Non-linear loads

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In linear circuits having only sinusoidal currents and voltages of one frequency, the power factor arises only from the difference in phase between the current and voltage. This is "displacement power factor" In non linear circuits, the power factor arises due non sinusoidal currents and voltages & the difference in phase between the current and voltage. This is Distortion Power factor & displacement power factor"

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Disadvantages of low power factor

Large kVA ratings of machine. Greater conductor size. Large copper losses Poor voltage regulation Reduced handling capacity of system

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Power factor improvement

Power factor correction of linear loads

Linear loads with low power factor (such as induction motors) can be corrected with a passive network of capacitors or inductors.

Power factor correction of nonlinear loads

Non-linear loads, such as rectifiers, distort the current drawn from the system. In such cases, active or passive power factor correction may be used to counteract the distortion and raise the power factor.
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Power factor correction of linear loads

1.

Using Passive Elements :- Capacitor

1. Reactive Power Control Relay; 2. Network connection points; 3. Slow-blow Fuses; 4. Inrush Limiting Contactors; 5. Capacitors (single-phase or three-phase units, delta-connection); 6. Transformer (for controls and ventilation fans)
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Merits & Demerits

Advantages:
1. 2. 3.

4. 5.

Losses are low in static capacitors There is no moving part, therefore need low maintenance It can work in normal air conditions (i.e. ordinary atmospheric conditions) Do not require a foundation for installation They are lightweight so it is can be easy to installed
The age of static capacitor bank is less (8 10 years) With changing load, we have to ON or OFF the capacitor bank, which causes switching surges on the system If the rated voltage increases, then it causes damage it Once the capacitors spoiled, then repairing is costly
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Disadvantages:
1. 2.

3. 4.

Power factor correction of linear loads

2. Synchronous Condenser An unloaded synchronous motor can supply reactive power. The reactive power drawn by the synchronous motor is a function of its field excitation. Whenever a Synchronous motor is over-exited then it provides leading current and works like a capacitor.

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Merits & Demerits

Advantages:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

7.

Long life (almost 25 years) High Reliability Step-less adjustment of power factor. No generation of harmonics of maintenance The faults can be removed easily Its not affected by harmonics. Require Low maintenance (only periodic bearing greasing is necessary)

Disadvantages:
It is expensive (maintenance cost is also high) and therefore mostly used by large power users. An auxiliary device has to be used for this operation because synchronous motor has no self starting torque It produces noise
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Power factor correction of linear loads

3. Phase advancer.

Phase advancer is a simple AC exciter which is connected on the main shaft of the motor and operates with the motors rotor circuit for power factor improvement. Phase advancer is used to improve the power factor of induction motor in industries. As the stator windings of induction motor takes lagging current 90 out of phase with Voltage, therefore the power factor of induction motor is low. If the exciting ampere-turns are excited by external AC source, then there would be no effect of exciting current on stator windings. Therefore the power factor of induction motor will be improved. This process is done by Phase advancer.

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Advantages: The phase advancer can be easily used where the use of synchronous motors is Unacceptable Disadvantage: Using Phase advancer is not economical for motors below 200 H.P. (about 150kW)

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Passive PFC The simplest way to control the harmonic current is to use a filter: it is possible to design a filter that passes current only at line frequency (50 or 60 Hz). This filter reduces the harmonic current, which means that the non-linear device now looks like a linear load. At this point the power factor can be brought to near unity, using capacitors or inductors as required. This filter requires large-value high-current inductors, however, which are bulky and expensive.
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Advantages & disadvantages of Passive PFC

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Active power factor corrector

An active power factor corrector (active PFC) is a power electronic system that changes the waveshape of current drawn by a load to improve the power factor. The purpose is to make the load circuitry that is power factor corrected appear purely resistive (apparent power equal to real power). In this case, the voltage and current are in phase and the reactive power consumption is zero. This enables the most efficient delivery of electrical power from the power company to the consumer.
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Active PFC circuits are based on switchmode converter techniques and are designed to compensate for distortion as well as displacement on the input current waveform. They tend to be significantly more complex than passive approaches, but this complexity is becoming more manageable with the availability of specialized control ICs for implementing active PFC. Active PFC operates at frequencies higher than the line frequency so that compensation of both distortion and displacement can occur within the timeframe of each line frequency cycle, resulting in corrected power factors of up to 0.99.
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