Functions and Their Graphs

The Cartesian Coordinate System
and Straight lines

Equations of Lines
Functions and Their Graphs
The Algebra of Functions
Linear Functions
Quadratic Functions
Functions and Mathematical Models
2.1
and Straight lines
1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 6
(2, 5) (2, 5)
y y
x x
L L
A Ay y = = 4 4
A Ax x = 3 = 3
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
(5, 1) (5, 1)
4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4
We can represent real numbers geometrically by points on
a real number, or coordinate, line:
The Cartesian coordinate system extends this concept to a
plane (two dimensional space) by adding a vertical axis.
4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4
4
3
2
1

1
2
3
4
The horizontal line is called the x-axis, and the vertical line is
called the y-axis.
4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4
4
3
2
1

1
2
3
4
x
y
The point where these two lines intersect is called the origin.
4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4
4
3
2
1

1
2
3
4
x
y
Origin
In the x-axis, positive numbers are to the right and negative
numbers are to the left of the origin.
4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4
4
3
2
1

1
2
3
4
x
y
Positive Direction Negative Direction
In the y-axis, positive numbers are above and negative
numbers are below the origin.
4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4
4
3
2
1

1
2
3
4
x
y
P
o
s
i
t
i
v
e

D
i
r
e
c
t
i
o
n

N
e
g
a
t
i
v
e

D
i
r
e
c
t
i
o
n

(

2, 4)
(1,

2)
(4, 3)
A point in the plane can now be represented uniquely in this
coordinate system by an ordered pair of numbers (x, y).
4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4
4
3
2
1

1
2
3
4
x
y
(3, 1)
The axes divide the plane into four quadrants as shown below.
4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4
4
3
2
1

1
2
3
4
x
y
Quadrant I
(+, +)
Quadrant II
(, +)
Quadrant IV
(+, )
Quadrant III
(, )
Slope of a Vertical Line
Let L denote the unique straight line that passes through
the two distinct points (x
1
, y
1
) and (x
2
, y
2
).
If x
1
= x
2
, then L is a vertical line, and the slope is
undefined.
(x
1
, y
1
)
(x
2
, y
2
)
y
x
L
Slope of a Nonvertical Line
If (x
1
, y
1
) and (x
2
, y
2
) are two distinct points on a
nonvertical line L, then the slope m of L is given by
(x
1
, y
1
)
(x
2
, y
2
)
y
x
2 1
2 1
y y y
m
x x x
A
= =
A
L
y
2
y
1
= Ay

x
2
x
1
= Ax

If m > 0, the line slants upward from left to right.
x
L
Ay = 1

Ax = 1

m = 1
y
If m > 0, the line slants upward from left to right.
y
x
L
Ay = 2

Ax = 1

m = 2
m = 1
If m < 0, the line slants downward from left to right.
x
L
Ay = 1
Ax = 1

y
m = 2
If m < 0, the line slants downward from left to right.
y
x
L
Ay = 2
Ax = 1

1 2 3 4 5 6
(2, 5)
Examples
Sketch the straight line that passes through the point
(2, 5) and has slope 4/3.
Solution
1. Plot the point (2, 5).
2. A slope of 4/3 means
that if x increases by 3,
y decreases by 4.
3. Plot the resulting
point (5, 1).
4. Draw a line through
the two points.
y
x
L
Ay = 4
Ax = 3

6
5
4
3
2
1

(5, 1)
Examples
Find the slope m of the line that goes through the points
(1, 1) and (5, 3).
Solution
Choose (x
1
, y
1
) to be (1, 1) and (x
2
, y
2
) to be (5, 3).
With x
1
= 1, y
1
= 1, x
2
= 5, y
2
= 3, we find
2 1
2 1
3 1 2 1
5 ( 1) 6 3
y y
m
x x

= = = =

Examples
(2, 5) and (3, 5).
Solution
Choose (x
1
, y
1
) to be (2, 5) and (x
2
, y
2
) to be (3, 5).
With x
1
= 2, y
1
= 5, x
2
= 3, y
2
= 5, we find
2 1
2 1
5 5 0
0
3 ( 2) 5
y y
m
x x

= = = =

2 1 1 2 3 4
Examples
(2, 5) and (3, 5).
Solution
The slope of a horizontal line is zero:
y
x
L
6

4
3
2
1
(2, 5)
(3, 5)
m = 0
Parallel Lines
Two distinct lines are parallel if and only if their
slopes are equal or their slopes are undefined.
Example
Let L
1
be a line that passes through the points (2, 9) and
(1, 3), and let L
2
be the line that passes through the points
(

4, 10) and (3,

4).
Determine whether L
1
and L
2
are parallel.
Solution
The slope m
1
of L
1
is given by

The slope m
2
of L
2
is given by

Since m
1
= m
2
, the lines L
1
and L
2
are in fact parallel.
1
3 9
2
1 ( 2)
m

= =

2
4 10
2
3 ( 4)
m

= =

2.2
Equations of Lines
1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 6
(0, (0, 3) 3)
y y
x x
L L
1 1
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
(4, 0) (4, 0)
Equations of Lines
Let L be a straight line
parallel to the y-axis.
Then L crosses the x-axis at
some point (a, 0) , with the
x-coordinate given by x = a,
where a is a real number.
Any other point on L has
the form (a, ), where
is an appropriate number.
The vertical line L can
therefore be described as
x = a
(a, )
y
x
L
(a, 0)
y y
y
Equations of Lines
Let L be a nonvertical line with a slope m.
Let (x
1
, y
1
) be a fixed point lying on L, and let (x, y) be a
variable point on L distinct from (x
1
, y
1
).
Using the slope formula by letting (x, y) = (x
2
, y
2
), we get

Multiplying both sides by x x
1
we get
1
1
y y
m
x x
1 1
( ) y y m x x =
Point-Slope Form
1 1
( ) y y m x x =
An equation of the line that has slope m and
passes through point (x
1
, y
1
) is given by
Examples
Find an equation of the line that passes through the point
(1, 3) and has slope 2.
Solution
Use the point-slope form

Substituting for point (1, 3) and slope m = 2, we obtain

Simplifying we get
1 1
( ) y y m x x =
3 2( 1) y x =
2 1 0 x y + =
Examples
Find an equation of the line that passes through the points
(3, 2) and (4, 1).
Solution
The slope is given by

Substituting in the point-slope form for point (4, 1) and
slope m = 3/7, we obtain
3
1 ( 4)
7
y x + =
3 7 5 0 x y + =
2 1
2 1
1 2 3
4 ( 3) 7
y y
m
x x

= = =

7 7 3 12 y x + = +
Perpendicular Lines
If L
1
and L
2
are two distinct nonvertical lines that
have slopes m
1
and m
2
, respectively, then L
1
is
perpendicular to L
2
(written L
1
L
2
) if and only if
1
2
1
m
m
=
Example
Find the equation of the line L
1
that passes through the
point (3, 1) and is perpendicular to the line L
2
described by

Solution
L
2
is described in point-slope form, so its slope is m
2
= 2.
Since the lines are perpendicular, the slope of L
1
must be
m
1
= 1/2
Using the point-slope form of the equation for L
1
we obtain
3 2( 1) y x =
1
1 ( 3)
2
2 2 3
2 5 0
y x
y x
x y
=
= +
+ =
(a, 0)
(0, b)
Crossing the Axis
A straight line L that is neither horizontal nor vertical
cuts the x-axis and the y-axis at, say, points (a, 0) and
(0, b), respectively.
The numbers a and b are called the x-intercept and
y-intercept, respectively, of L.
y
x
L
y-intercept
x-intercept
Slope-Intercept Form
An equation of the line that has slope m and
intersects the y-axis at the point (0, b) is given by
y = mx + b
Examples
Find the equation of the line that has slope 3 and
y-intercept of 4.
Solution
We substitute m = 3 and b = 4 into y = mx + b and get
y = 3x 4
Examples
Determine the slope and y-intercept of the line whose
equation is 3x 4y = 8.
Solution
Rewrite the given equation in the slope-intercept form.

Comparing to y = mx + b, we find that m = and b =

2.
So, the slope is and the y-intercept is

2.
3 4 8
4 8 3
3
2
4
x y
y x
y x
=
=
=
Applied Example
Suppose an art object purchased for $50,000 is expected to
appreciate in value at a constant rate of $5000 per year for
the next 5 years.
Write an equation predicting the value of the art object for
any given year.
What will be its value 3 years after the purchase?
Solution
Let x = time (in years) since the object was purchased
y = value of object (in dollars)
Then, y = 50,000 when x = 0, so the y-intercept is b = 50,000.
Every year the value rises by 5000, so the slope is m = 5000.
Thus, the equation must be y = 5000x + 50,000.
After 3 years the value of the object will be $65,000:
y = 5000(3) + 50,000 = 65,000
General Form of a Linear Equation
The equation
Ax + By + C = 0
where A, B, and C are constants and A and B
are not both zero, is called the general form
of a linear equation in the variables x and y.
General Form of a Linear Equation
An equation of a straight line is a linear
equation; conversely, every linear equation
represents a straight line.
Example
Sketch the straight line represented by the equation
3x 4y 12 = 0
Solution
Since every straight line is uniquely determined by two
distinct points, we need find only two such points through
which the line passes in order to sketch it.
For convenience, lets compute the x- and y-intercepts:
Setting y = 0, we find x = 4; so the x-intercept is 4.
Setting x = 0, we find y = 3; so the y-intercept is 3.
Thus, the line goes through the points (4, 0) and (0, 3).
Example
Sketch the straight line represented by the equation
3x 4y 12 = 0
Solution
Graph the line going through the points (4, 0) and (0, 3).
1 2 3 4 5 6
(0, 3)
y
x
L
1

1
2
3
4

(4, 0)
Equations of Straight Lines
Vertical line: x = a
Horizontal line: y = b
Point-slope form: y y
1
= m(x x
1
)
Slope-intercept form: y = mx + b
General Form: Ax + By + C = 0
2.3
( ) f x x = ( )
f x x =
( ) f x x = ( )
f x x =
3 3 2 2 1 1 1 1 2 2 3 3
3 3
2 2
1 1
x x
y y
Functions
A function f is a rule that assigns to each element in a
set A one and only one element in a set B.
The set A is called the domain of the function.
It is customary to denote a function by a letter of the
alphabet, such as the letter f.
If x is an element in the domain of a function f, then the
element in B that f associates with x is written f(x) (read
f of x) and is called the value of f at x.
The set B comprising all the values assumed by y = f(x)
as x takes on all possible values in its domain is called
the range of the function f.
Example
Let the function f be defined by the rule

Find: f(1)
Solution:
( )
2
2 1 f x x x = +
( ) ( ) ( )
2
1 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 f = + = + =
Example

Find: f( 2)
Solution:
( )
2
2 1 f x x x = +
( ) ( ) ( )
2
2 2 2 2 1 8 2 1 11 f = + = + + =
Example

Find: f(a)
Solution:
( )
2
2 1 f x x x = +
( ) ( ) ( )
2
2
2 1 2 1 f a a a a a = + = +
Example

Find: f(a + h)
Solution:
( )
2
2 1 f x x x = +
( ) ( ) ( )
2
2 2
2 1 2 4 2 1 f a h a h a h a ah h a h + = + + + = + + +
Applied Example
ThermoMaster manufactures an indoor-outdoor
thermometer at its Mexican subsidiary.
Management estimates that the profit (in dollars)
realizable by ThermoMaster in the manufacture and sale
of x thermometers per week is

Find ThermoMasters weekly profit if its level of
production is:
a. 1000 thermometers per week.
b. 2000 thermometers per week.
( )
2
0.001 8 5000 P x x x = +
Applied Example
Solution
We have

a. The weekly profit by producing 1000 thermometers is

or $2,000.
b. The weekly profit by producing 2000 thermometers is

or $7,000.
( ) ( ) ( )
2
1000 0.001 1000 8 1000 5000 2000 P = + = =
( ) ( ) ( )
2
2000 0.001 2000 8 2000 5000 7000 P = + = =
( )
2
0.001 8 5000 P x x x = +
Determining the Domain of a Function
Suppose we are given the function y = f(x).
Then, the variable x is called the independent variable.
The variable y, whose value depends on x, is called the
dependent variable.
To determine the domain of a function, we need to find
what restrictions, if any, are to be placed on the
independent variable x.
In many practical problems, the domain of a function is
dictated by the nature of the problem.
x
16 2x
Applied Example: Packaging
An open box is to be made from a rectangular piece of
cardboard 16 inches wide by cutting away identical
squares (x inches by x inches) from each corner and
folding up the resulting flaps.

10 10 2x
16
x
x x
An open box is to be made from a rectangular piece of
cardboard 16 inches wide by cutting away identical
squares (x inches by x inches) from each corner and
folding up the resulting flaps.

a. Find the expression that gives the volume V of the box as
a function of x.
b. What is the domain of the function?
The dimensions of the
resulting box are:
x
16 2x
10 2x
x
16 2x
Solution
a. The volume of the box is given by multiplying its
dimensions (length width height), so:
10 2x
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
2
3 2
16 2 10 2
160 52 4
4 52 160
V f x x x x
x x x
x x x
= =
= +
= +
Solution
b. Since the length of each side of the box must be greater
than or equal to zero, we see that

must be satisfied simultaneously. Simplified:

All three are satisfied simultaneously provided that:

Thus, the domain of the function f is the interval [0, 5].
8 5 0 x x x s s > =
16 2 0 10 2 0 0 x x x > > >
0 5 x s s
More Examples
Find the domain of the function:

Solution
Since the square root of a negative number is undefined, it
is necessary that x 1 > 0.
Thus the domain of the function is [1,).
( )
1 f x x =
More Examples

Solution
Our only constraint is that you cannot divide by zero, so

Which means that

Or more specifically x 2 and x 2.
Thus the domain of f consists of the intervals (

, 2),
(2, 2), (2, ).
2
4 0 x =
( )
2
1
4
f x
x
=
( )( )
2
4 2 2 0 x x x = + =
More Examples

Solution
Here, any real number satisfies the equation, so the
domain of f is the set of all real numbers.
( )
2
3 f x x = +
Graphs of Functions
If f is a function with domain A, then corresponding to
each real number x in A there is precisely one real
number f(x).

Thus, a function f with domain A can also be defined as
the set of all ordered pairs (x, f(x)) where x belongs to A.

The graph of a function f is the set of all points (x, y) in
the xy-plane such that x is in the domain of f and y = f(x).
Example
The graph of a function f is shown below:
x
y
Domain
Range
x
y
(x, y)
Example
What is the value of f(2)?
x
y
4
3
2
1

1
2

(2, 2)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Example
What is the value of f(5)?
x
y
(5, 3)
4
3
2
1

1
2

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Example
What is the domain of f(x)?
x
y
4
3
2
1

1
2

Domain: [1,8]
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Example
What is the range of f(x)?
x
y
4
3
2
1

1
2

Range:
[2,4]
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Example: Sketching a Graph
Sketch the graph of the function defined by the equation
y = x
2
+ 1
Solution
The domain of the function is the set of all real numbers.
Assign several values to the variable x and compute the
corresponding values for y:
x y
3 10
2 5
1 2
0 1
1 2
2 5
3 10
3 2 1 1 2 3
10
8
6
4
2

y = x
2
+ 1
Solution
Then plot these values in a graph:
x
y
x y
3 10
2 5
1 2
0 1
1 2
2 5
3 10
3 2 1 1 2 3
10
8
6
4
2

y = x
2
+ 1
Solution
And finally, connect the dots:
x
y
x y
3 10
2 5
1 2
0 1
1 2
2 5
3 10

Solution
The function f is defined in a piecewise fashion on the set
of all real numbers.
In the subdomain ( , 0), the rule for f is given by

In the subdomain [0, ), the rule for f is given by
( )
if 0
if 0
x x
f x
x x
<
=

>
( )
f x x =
( )
f x x =

Solution
Substituting negative values for x into , while
substituting zero and positive values into we get:
( )
if 0
if 0
x x
f x
x x
<
=

>
( )
f x x =
( )
f x x =
x y
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 0
1 1
2 1.41
3 1.73

Solution
Plotting these data and graphing we get:
( )
if 0
if 0
x x
f x
x x
<
=

>
( )
f x x =
( )
f x x =
3 2 1 1 2 3
3
2
1
x
y
x y
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 0
1 1
2 1.41
3 1.73
The Vertical Line Test
A curve in the xy-plane is the graph of a function
y = f(x) if and only if each vertical line intersects it
in at most one point.
Examples
Determine if the curve in the graph is a function of x:

Solution
The curve is indeed a function of x, because there is one
and only one value of y for any given value of x.
x
y
Examples

Solution
The curve is not a function of x, because there is more than
one value of y for some values of x.
x
y
Examples

Solution
The curve is indeed a function of x, because there is one
and only one value of y for any given value of x.
x
y
2.4
The Algebra of Functions
1990 1990 1992 1992 1994 1994 1996 1996 1998 1998 2000 2000
2000 2000
1800 1800
1600 1600
1400 1400
1200 1200
1000 1000
t t
y y
B
i
l
l
i
o
n
s

o
f

D
o
l
l
a
r
s
B
i
l
l
i
o
n
s

o
f

D
o
l
l
a
r
s
Year Year
y y = = S S( (t t) )
y y = = R R( (t t) )
t t
R R( (t t) )
S S( (t t) )
The Sum, Difference, Product and Quotient
of Functions
Consider the graph below:
R(t) denotes the federal government revenue at any time t.
S(t) denotes the federal government spending at any time t.
1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000
2000
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
t
y
B
i
l
l
i
o
n
s

o
f

D
o
l
l
a
r
s

Year
y = S(t)
y = R(t)
t
R(t)
S(t)
D(t) = R(t) S(t)
of Functions
Consider the graph below:
The difference R(t) S(t) gives the budget deficit (if negative)
or surplus (if positive) in billions of dollars at any time t.
1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000
2000
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
t
y
B
i
l
l
i
o
n
s

o
f

D
o
l
l
a
r
s

Year
y = S(t)
y = R(t)
t
R(t)
S(t)
of Functions
The budget balance D(t) is shown below:
D(t) is also a function that denotes the federal government
deficit (surplus) at any time t.
This function is the difference of the two functions R and S.
D(t) has the same domain as R(t) and S(t).
1992 1994 1996 1998 2000
400
200
0
200
400
t
y
B
i
l
l
i
o
n
s

o
f

D
o
l
l
a
r
s

Year
t
D(t)
y = D(t)
of Functions
Most functions are built up from other, generally
simpler functions.
For example, we may view the function f(x) = 2x + 4
as the sum of the two functions g(x) = 2x and h(x) = 4.
( )
( )
( )
f f x
x
g g x
| |
=
|
\ .
The Sum, Difference, Product and Quotient of Functions
Let f and g be functions with domains A and B, respectively.
The sum f + g, the difference f g, and the product fg of f
and g are functions with domain A B and rule given by
(f + g)(x) = f(x) + g(x) Sum
(f g)(x) = f(x) g(x) Difference
(fg)(x) = f(x)g(x) Product

The quotient f/g of f and g has domain A B excluding all
numbers x such that g(x) = 0 and rule given by

Quotient
Example
Let and g(x) = 2x + 1.
Find the sum s, the difference d, the product p, and the
quotient q of the functions f and g.
Solution
Since the domain of f is A = [1,) and the domain of g
is B = ( , ), we see that the domain of s, d, and p is
A B = [1,).
The rules are as follows:
( ) 1 f x x = +
( )
( ) ( )( ) ( ) ( ) 1 2 1
( ) ( )( ) ( ) ( ) 1 2 1
( ) ( )( ) ( ) ( ) 2 1 1
s x f g x f x g x x x
d x f g x f x g x x x
p x fg x f x g x x x
= + = + = + + +
= = = +
= = = + +
Example
Let and g(x) = 2x + 1.
Find the sum s, the difference d, the product p, and the
quotient q of the functions f and g.
Solution
The domain of the quotient function is [1,) together
with the restriction x

.
Thus, the domain is [1,

) Y (

,).
The rule is as follows:
( ) 1 f x x = +
( ) 1
( ) ( )
( ) 2 1
f f x x
q x x
g g x x
| | +
= = =
|
+
\ .
Applied Example: Cost Functions
Suppose Puritron, a manufacturer of water filters, has a
monthly fixed cost of $10,000 and a variable cost of

0.0001x
2
+ 10x (0 s x s 40,000)
dollars, where x denotes the number of filters
manufactured per month.
Find a function C that gives the total monthly cost
incurred by Puritron in the manufacture of x filters.
Solution
Puritrons monthly fixed cost is always $10,000, so it can
be described by the constant function:
F(x) = 10,000
The variable cost can be described by the function:
V(x) =

0.0001x
2
+ 10x
The total cost is the sum of the fixed cost F and the
variable cost V:
C(x) = V(x) + F(x)
=

0.0001x
2
+ 10x + 10,000 (0 s x s 40,000)
Lets now consider profits
Suppose that the total revenue R realized by Puritron from
the sale of x water filters is given by
R(x) =

0.0005x
2
+ 20x (0 x 40,000)
Find
a. The total profit function for Puritron.
b. The total profit when Puritron produces 10,000 filters per
month.
Solution
a. The total profit P realized by the firm is the difference
between the total revenue R and the total cost C:
P(x) = R(x) C(x)
= (

0.0005x
2
+ 20x) (

0.0001x
2
+ 10x + 10,000)
=

0.0004x
2
+ 10x 10,000
b. The total profit realized by Puritron when producing 10,000
filters per month is
P(x) =

0.0004(10,000)
2
+ 10(10,000) 10,000
= 50,000
or $50,000 per month.
The Composition of Two Functions
Another way to build a function from other functions is
through a process known as the composition of functions.
Consider the functions f and g:

Evaluating the function g at the point f(x), we find that:

This is an entirely new function, which we could call h:
2
( ) 1 f x x = ( ) g x x =
( )
2
( ) ( ) 1 g f x f x x = =
2
( ) 1 h x x =
The Composition of Two Functions
Let f and g be functions.
Then the composition of g and f is the function
ggf (read g circle f ) defined by
(ggf )(x) = g(f(x))

The domain of ggf is the set of all x in the
domain of f such that f(x) lies in the domain of g.
Example
Let
Find:
a. The rule for the composite function ggf.
b. The rule for the composite function fgg.
Solution
To find ggf, evaluate the function g at f(x):

To find fgg, evaluate the function f at g(x):

2
( ) 1 ( ) 1 an d . f x x g x x = = +
2
( )( ) ( ( )) ( ) 1 1 1 g f x g f x f x x = = + = +
2 2
( )( ) ( ( )) ( ( )) 1 ( 1) 1
2 1 1 2
f g x f g x g x x
x x x x
= = = +
= + + = +
Applied Example: Automobile Pollution
An environmental impact study conducted for the city of
Oxnard indicates that, under existing environmental
protection laws, the level of carbon monoxide (CO)
present in the air due to pollution from automobile
exhaust will be 0.01x
2/3
parts per million when the
number of motor vehicles is x thousand.
A separate study conducted by a state government agency
estimates that t years from now the number of motor
vehicles in Oxnard will be 0.2t
2
+ 4t + 64 thousand.
Find:
a. An expression for the concentration of CO in the air due
to automobile exhaust t years from now.
b. The level of concentration 5 years from now.
Solution
Part (a):
The level of CO is described by the function
g(x) = 0.01x
2/3

where x is the number (in thousands) of motor vehicles.
In turn, the number (in thousands) of motor vehicles is
described by the function
f(t) = 0.2t
2
+ 4t + 64
where t is the number of years from now.
Therefore, the concentration of CO due to automobile
exhaust t years from now is given by
(ggf )(t) = g(f(t)) = 0.01(0.2t
2
+ 4t + 64)
2/3
Solution
Part (b):
The level of CO five years from now is:
(ggf )(5) = g(f(5)) = 0.01[0.2(5)
2
+ 4(5) + 64]
2/3
= (0.01)89
2/3
0.20
or approximately 0.20 parts per million.
2.5
Linear Functions
1 1 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
y y
x x
(1, 2) (1, 2)
L L
1 1
L L
2 2
Linear Function
The function f defined by

where m and b are constants, is called a linear
function.
( ) f x mx b = +
Applied Example: Linear Depreciation
A Web server has an original value of $10,000 and is to
be depreciated linearly over 5 years with a $3000 scrap
value.
Find an expression giving the book value at the end of
year t.
What will be the book value of the server at the end of
the second year?
What is the rate of depreciation of the server?
Solution
Let V(t) denote the Web servers book value at the end of
the tth year. V is a linear function of t.
To find an equation of the straight line that represents the
depreciation, observe that V = 10,000 when t = 0; this tells
us that the line passes through the point (0, 10,000).
Similarly, the condition that V = 3000 when t = 5 says that
the line also passes through the point (5, 3000).
Thus, the slope of the line is given by
10, 000 3000 7000
1400
0 5 5
m

= = =

Solution
Using the point-slope form of the equation of a line with
point (0, 10,000) and slope m = 1400, we obtain the
required expression

The book value at the end of the second year is given by

or $7200.
The rate of depreciation of the server is given by the
negative slope of the depreciation line m = 1400, so the
rate of depreciation is $1400 per year.
10, 000 1400( 0)
1400 10, 000
V t
V t
=
= +
(2) 1400(2) 10, 000 7200 V = + =
Solution
The graph of V is:
1400 10,000 V t = +
1 2 3 4 5 6
(0, 10,000)
V
t
(5, 3000)
10,000
3000
Cost, Revenue, and Profit Functions
Let x denote the number of units of a product
manufactured or sold.
Then, the total cost function is
C(x) = Total cost of manufacturing x units
of the product
The revenue function is
R(x) = Total revenue realized from the sale
of x units of the product
The profit function is
P(x) = Total profit realized from
manufacturing and selling x units of
the product
Applied Example: Profit Function
Puritron, a manufacturer of water filters, has a monthly
fixed cost of $20,000, a production cost of $20 per unit, and
a selling price of $30 per unit.
Find the cost function, the revenue function, and the
profit function for Puritron.
Solution
Let x denote the number of units produced and sold.
Then,
( ) 20 20, 000 C x x = +
( ) 30 R x x =
( ) ( ) ( )
30 (20 20, 000)
10 20, 000
P x R x C x
x x
x
=
= +
=
Finding the Point of Intersection
Suppose we are given two straight lines L
1
and L
2
with
equations
y = m
1
x + b
1
and y = m
2
x + b
2

(where m
1
, b
1
, m
2
, and b
2
are constants) that intersect at the
point P(x
0
, y
0
).
The point P(x
0
, y
0
) lies on the line L
1
and so satisfies the
equation y = m
1
x + b
1
.
The point P(x
0
, y
0
) also lies on the line L
2
and so satisfies
y = m
2
x + b
2
as well.
Therefore, to find the point of intersection P(x
0
, y
0
) of the
lines L
1
and L
2
, we solve for x and y the system composed
of the two equations
y = m
1
x + b
1
and y = m
2
x + b
2

Example
Find the point of intersection of the straight lines that have
equations
y = x + 1 and y =

2x + 4
Solution
Substituting the value y as given in the first equation into
the second equation, we obtain

Substituting this value of x into either one of the given
equations yields y = 2.
Therefore, the required point of intersection is (1, 2).
1 2 4 x x + = +
3 3 x =
1 x =

1 1

2

3

4 5
5
4
3
2
1
Example
Find the point of intersection of the straight lines that have
equations
y = x + 1 and y =

2x + 4
Solution
The graph shows the point of intersection (1, 2) of the two
lines:
y
x
(1, 2)
L
1
L
2
Applied Example: Break-Even Level
Prescott manufactures its products at a cost of $4 per unit
and sells them for $10 per unit.
If the firms fixed cost is $12,000 per month, determine the
firms break-even point.
Solution
The revenue function R and the cost function C are given
respectively by

Setting R(x) = C(x), we obtain
( ) 10 ( ) 4 12, 000 d an . R x x C x x = = +
10 4 12, 000 x x = +
6 12, 000 x =
2000 x =
Applied Example: Break-Even Level
Prescott manufactures its products at a cost of $4 per unit
and sells them for $10 per unit.
If the firms fixed cost is $12,000 per month, determine the
firms break-even point.
Solution
Substituting x = 2000 into R(x) = 10x gives

So, Prescotts break-even point is 2000 units of the product,
resulting in a break-even revenue of $20,000 per month.
(2000) 10(2000) 20, 000 R = =
2.6
Quadratic Functions
1 1 1 1 2 2
1 1
1 1
2 2
x x
y y
2
( ) 2 5 2 f x x x = +
2
( ) 2 5 2 f x x x = +
Vertex Vertex
x x- -intercepts intercepts
1
2
1
2
5 9
,
4 8
| |
|
\ .
5 9
,
4 8
| |
|
\ .
y y- -intercept intercept
Quadratic Functions
A quadratic function is one of the form

where a, b, and c are constants and a 0.
For example, the function

is quadratic, with a = 2, b =

4, and c = 3.
2
( ) f x ax bx c = + +
2
( ) 2 4 3 f x x x = +
Quadratic Functions
Below is the graph of the quadratic function

The graph of a quadratic function is a curve called a
parabola that opens upward or downward.
2
( ) 2 4 3 f x x x = +

2

1 1 2 3 4
10
8
6
4
2

x
y
2
( ) 2 4 3 f x x x = +
Parabola
Quadratic Functions
The parabola is symmetric with respect to a vertical
line called the axis of symmetry.
The axis of symmetry also passes through the lowest or
highest point of the parabola, which is called the vertex
of the parabola.

2

1 1 2 3 4
10
8
6
4
2

x
y
Axis of
symmetry
Vertex (1, 1)
2
( ) 2 4 3 f x x x = +
Parabola
Quadratic Functions
We can use these properties to help us sketch the graph
of a quadratic function.
Suppose we want to sketch the graph of

If we complete the square in x, we obtain

Note that (x 1)
2
is nonnegative: it equals to zero when x = 1
and is greater than zero if x 1.
Thus, we see that f(x) >

2 for all values of x.
This tells us the vertex of the parabola is the point (1,

2).
2
( ) 3 6 1 f x x x = +
2
2 2
2
( ) 3( 2 ) 1
3[ 2 ( 1) ] 1 3
3( 1) 2
f x x x
x x
x
= +
= + +
=
Quadratic Functions
We know the vertex of the parabola is the point (1,

2) and
that it is the minimum point of the graph, since f(x) >

2 for
all values of x.
Thus, the graph of f(x) = 3x
2
6x +1 looks as follows:

2 2 4
4
2

2
x
y
2
( ) 3 6 1 f x x x = +
Vertex (1, 2)
Properties of Quadratic Functions
Given f(x) = ax
2
+ bx +c (a 0)

1. The domain of f is the set of all real numbers.
2. If a > 0, the parabola opens upward, and if a < 0,
it opens downward.
3. The vertex of the parabola is
4. The axis of symmetry of the parabola is
5. The x-intercepts (if any) are found by solving
f(x) = 0. The y-intercept is f(0) = c.
,
2 2
b b
f
a a
| |
| |

|
|
\ .
\ .
.
2
b
x
a
= .
Example
Given the quadratic function f(x) =

2x
2
+ 5x 2
a. Find the vertex of the parabola.
b. Find the x-intercepts (if any) of the parabola.
c. Sketch the parabola.
Solution
a. Here a =

2, b = 5, and c =

2. therefore, the x-coordinate
of the vertex of the parabola is

The y-coordinate of the vertex is therefore given by

Thus, the vertex of the parabola is the point
5 5
2 2( 2) 4
b
a
= =
2
5 5 5 9
2 5 2
4 4 4 8
f
| | | | | |
= + =
| | |
\ . \ . \ .
5 9
,
4 8
| |
|
\ .
.
Example

2x
2
+ 5x 2
Solution
b. For the x-intercepts of the parabola, we solve the equation

using the quadratic formula with a =

2, b = 5, and c =

2.
We find

Thus, the x-intercepts of the parabola are 1/2 and 2.
2
2 5 2 0 x x + =
2
5 25 4( 2)( 2) 4 5 3
2 2( 2) 4
b b ac
x
a

= = =

Example

2x
2
+ 5x 2
Solution
c. The sketch:

1 1 2
1

1

2
x
y
2
( ) 2 5 2 f x x x = +
Vertex
x-intercepts
1
2
5 9
,
4 8
| |
|
\ .
y-intercept
Some Economic Models
Peoples decision on how much to demand or purchase of a
given product depends on the price of the product:

The higher the price the less they want to buy of it.

A demand function p = d(x) can be used to describe this.
Similarly, firms decision on how much to supply or
produce of a product depends on the price of the product:

The higher the price, the more they want to produce of it.

A supply function p = s(x) can be used to describe this.
The interaction between demand and supply will ensure
the market settles to a market equilibrium:

This is the situation at which quantity demanded equals
quantity supplied.

Graphically, this situation occurs when the demand curve
and the supply curve intersect: where d(x) = s(x).
Applied Example: Supply and Demand
The demand function for a certain brand of bluetooth
wireless headset is given by

The corresponding supply function is given by

where p is the expressed in dollars and x is measured in
units of a thousand.
Find the equilibrium quantity and price.
2
( ) 0.025 0.5 60 p d x x x = = +
2
( ) 0.02 0.6 20 p s x x x = = + +
Solution
We solve the following system of equations:

Substituting the second equation into the first yields:

Thus, either x = 400/9 (but this is not possible), or x = 20.
So, the equilibrium quantity must be 20,000 headsets.
2
2
0.025 0.5 60
0.02 0.6 20
p x x
p x x
= +
= + +
( ) ( )
2 2
2
2
2
0.02 0.6 20 0.025 0.5 60
0.045 1.1 40 0
45 1100 40, 000 0
9 220 8, 000 0
9 400 20 0
x x x x
x x
x x
x x
x x
+ + = +
+ =
+ =
+ =
+ =
Solution
The equilibrium price is given by:

or $40 per headset.
( ) ( )
2
0.02 20 0.6 20 20 40 p = + + =
2.7
Functions and Mathematical Models
5 5 10 10 15 15 20 20 25 25 30 30
6 6
4 4
2 2
t t (years) (years)
y y ($trillion) ($trillion)
Mathematical Models
As we have seen, mathematics can be used to
solve real-world problems.
We will now discuss a few more examples of
real-world phenomena, such as:
The solvency of the U.S. Social Security
trust fund
Global warming
Mathematical Modeling
Regardless of the field from which the real-world problem
is drawn, the problem is analyzed using a process called
mathematical modeling.
The four steps in this process are:
Real-world problem
Mathematical
model
Solution of real-
world problem
Solution of
mathematical model
Formulate
Interpret
Solve
Test
Modeling With Polynomial Functions
A polynomial function of degree n is a function of the form

where n is a nonnegative integer and the numbers
a
0
, a
1
, . a
n
are constants called the coefficients of the
polynomial function.
Examples:
The function below is polynomial function of degree 5:
5 4 3 2
1
2
( ) 2 3 2 6 f x x x x x = + +
1 2
1 2 1 0
( ) ( 0)
n n
n n n
f x a x a x a x a x a a
= + + + + + =
Modeling With Polynomial Functions
A polynomial function of degree n is a function of the form

where n is a nonnegative integer and the numbers
a
0
, a
1
, . a
n
are constants called the coefficients of the
polynomial function.
Examples:
The function below is polynomial function of degree 3:
3 2
( ) 0.001 0.2 10 200 g x x x x = + +
1 2
1 2 1 0
( ) ( 0)
n n
n n n
f x a x a x a x a x a a
= + + + + + =
Applied Example: Global Warming
The increase in carbon dioxide (CO
2
) in the atmosphere is
a major cause of global warming.
Below is a table showing the average amount of CO
2
,
measured in parts per million volume (ppmv) for various
years from 1958 through 2007:
Year 1958 1970 1974 1978 1985 1991 1998 2003 2007
Amount 315 325 330 335 345 355 365 375 380
Below is a scatter plot associated with these data:
Year 1958 1970 1974 1978 1985 1991 1998 2003 2007
Amount 315 325 330 335 345 355 365 375 380
10 20 30 40 50
380
360
340
320
t (years)
y (ppmv)
A mathematical model giving the approximate amount of
CO
2
is given by:
Year 1958 1970 1974 1978 1985 1991 1998 2003 2007
Amount 315 325 330 335 345 355 365 375 380
10 20 30 40 50
380
360
340
320
t (years)
y (ppmv)
2
( ) 0.01076 0.8212 313.4 A t t t = + +
a. Use the model to estimate the average amount of atmospheric
CO
2
in 1980 (t = 23).
b. Assume that the trend continued and use the model to predict
the average amount of atmospheric CO
2
in 2010.
Year 1958 1970 1974 1978 1985 1991 1998 2003 2007
Amount 315 325 330 335 345 355 365 375 380
2
( ) 0.010716 0.8212 313.4 (1 50) A t t t t = + + s s
Solution
a. The average amount of atmospheric CO
2
in 1980 is given by

or approximately 338 ppmv.
b. Assuming that the trend will continue, the average amount of
atmospheric CO
2
in 2010 will be
Year 1958 1970 1974 1978 1985 1991 1998 2003 2007
Amount 315 325 330 335 345 355 365 375 380
( ) ( )
2
(23) 0.010716 23 0.8212 23 313.4 337.96 A = + + ~
( ) ( )
2
(53) 0.010716 53 0.8212 53 313.4 387.03 A = + + ~
2
( ) 0.010716 0.8212 313.4 (1 50) A t t t t = + + s s
Applied Example: Social Security Trust Fund
The projected assets of the Social Security trust fund (in
trillions of dollars) from 2008 through 2040 are given by:

The scatter plot associated with these data is:
Year 2008 2011 2014 2017 2020 2023 2026 2029 2032 2035 2038 2040
Assets 2.4 3.2 4.0 4.7 5.3 5.7 5.9 5.6 4.9 3.6 1.7 0
5 10 15 20 25 30
6
4
2
t (years)
y ($trillion)
The projected assets of the Social Security trust fund (in
trillions of dollars) from 2008 through 2040 are given by:

A mathematical model giving the approximate value of assets
in the trust fund (in trillions of dollars) is:
5 10 15 20 25 30
6
4
2
t (years)
y ($trillion)
4 3 2
( ) 0.00000324 0.000326 0.00342 0.254 2.4 A t t t t t = + + +
Year 2008 2011 2014 2017 2020 2023 2026 2029 2032 2035 2038 2040
Assets 2.4 3.2 4.0 4.7 5.3 5.7 5.9 5.6 4.9 3.6 1.7 0
a. The first baby boomers will turn 65 in 2011. What will be the
assets of the Social Security trust fund at that time?
b. The last of the baby boomers will turn 65 in 2029. What will
the assets of the trust fund be at the time?
c. Use the graph of function A(t) to estimate the year in which
the current Social Security system will go broke.
4 3 2
( ) 0.00000324 0.000326 0.00342 0.254 2.4 A t t t t t = + + +
Year 2008 2011 2014 2017 2020 2023 2026 2029 2032 2035 2038 2040
Assets 2.4 3.2 4.0 4.7 5.3 5.7 5.9 5.6 4.9 3.6 1.7 0
Solution
a. The assets of the Social Security fund in 2011 (t = 3) will be:

or approximately $3.18 trillion.
The assets of the Social Security fund in 2029 (t = 21) will be:

or approximately $5.59 trillion.
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
4 3 2
(3) 0.00000324 3 0.000326 3 0.00342 3 0.254 3 2.4 3.18 A = + + + ~
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
4 3 2
(21) 0.00000324 21 0.000326 21 0.00342 21 0.254 21 2.4 5.59 A = + + + ~
Year 2008 2011 2014 2017 2020 2023 2026 2029 2032 2035 2038 2040
Assets 2.4 3.2 4.0 4.7 5.3 5.7 5.9 5.6 4.9 3.6 1.7 0
4 3 2
( ) 0.00000324 0.000326 0.00342 0.254 2.4 A t t t t t = + + +
Solution
b. The graph shows that function A crosses the t-axis at about
t = 32, suggesting the system will go broke by 2040:
5 10 15 20 25 30
6
4
2
y ($trillion)
Trust runs
out of funds
Year 2008 2011 2014 2017 2020 2023 2026 2029 2032 2035 2038 2040
Assets 2.4 3.2 4.0 4.7 5.3 5.7 5.9 5.6 4.9 3.6 1.7 0
4 3 2
( ) 0.00000324 0.000326 0.00342 0.254 2.4 A t t t t t = + + +
t (years)
Rational and Power Functions
A rational function is simply the quotient of two
polynomials.
In general, a rational function has the form

where f(x) and g(x) are polynomial functions.
Since the division by zero is not allowed, we conclude that
the domain of a rational function is the set of all real
numbers except the zeros of g (the roots of the equation
g(x) = 0)
( )
( )
( )
f x
R x
g x
=
Examples of rational functions:
3 2
3 1
( )
2
x x x
F x
x
+ +
=
2
2
1
( )
1
x
G x
x
+
=

Functions of the form

where r is any real number, are called power functions.
We encountered examples of power functions earlier in
our work.
Examples of power functions:
1/2 2
2
1
( ) ( ) and f x x x g x x
x

= = = =
( )
r
f x x =
Many functions involve combinations of rational and
power functions.
Examples:
2
2
2
1/2
2 3/2
1
( )
1
( ) 3 4
1
( ) (1 2 )
( 2)
x
f x
x
g x x x
h x x
x
=
+
= +
= + +
+
Applied Example: Driving Costs
A study of driving costs based on a 2007 medium-sized
sedan found the following average costs (car payments,
gas, insurance, upkeep, and depreciation), measured in
cents per mile:

A mathematical model giving the average cost in cents per
mile is:

where x (in thousands) denotes the number of miles the car
is driven in 1 year.
Miles/year, x 5000 10,000 15,000 20,000
Cost/mile, y () 83.8 62.9 52.2 47.1
0.42
164.8
( ) C x
x
=
Below is the scatter plot associated with this data:
0.42
164.8
( ) C x
x
=
5 10 15 20 25
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
x (1000 miles/year)
y ()
C(x)
Miles/year, x 5000 10,000 15,000 20,000
Cost/mile, y () 83.8 62.9 52.2 47.1
Using this model, estimate the average cost of driving a
2007 medium-sized sedan 8,000 miles per year and 18,000
miles per year.
Solution
The average cost for driving a car 8,000 miles per year is

or approximately 68.8/mile.
0.42
164.8
( ) C x
x
=
( )
0.42
164.8
(8) 68.81
8
C = ~
Miles/year, x 5000 10,000 15,000 20,000
Cost/mile, y () 83.8 62.9 52.2 47.1
Using this model, estimate the average cost of driving a
2007 medium-sized sedan 8,000 miles per year and 18,000
miles per year.
Solution
The average cost for driving a car 18,000 miles per year is

or approximately 48.95/mile.
0.42
164.8
( ) C x
x
=
( )
0.42
164.8
(18) 48.95
18
C = ~
Miles/year, x 5000 10,000 15,000 20,000
Cost/mile, y () 83.8 62.9 52.2 47.1
Constructing Mathematical Models
Some mathematical models can be constructed using
elementary geometric and algebraic arguments.

Guidelines for constructing mathematical models:
1. Assign a letter to each variable mentioned in the
problem. If appropriate, draw and label a figure.
2. Find an expression for the quantity sought.
3. Use the conditions given in the problem to write
the quantity sought as a function f of one variable.
Note any restrictions to be placed on the domain
of f by the nature of the problem.
Applied Example: Enclosing an Area
The owner of the Rancho Los Feliz has 3000 yards of
fencing with which to enclose a rectangular piece of
grazing land along the straight portion of a river.
Fencing is not required along the river.
Letting x denote the width of the rectangle, find a function
f in the variable x giving the area of the grazing land if she
uses all of the fencing.
Applied Example: Enclosing an Area
Solution
This information was given:
The area of the rectangular grazing land is A = xy.
The amount of fencing is 2x + y which must equal 3000
(to use all the fencing), so:
2x + y = 3000
Solving for y we get:
y = 3000 2x
Substituting this value of y into the expression for A gives:
A = x(3000 2x) = 3000x 2x
2
Finally, x and y represent distances, so they must be
nonnegative, so x > 0 and y = 3000 2x > 0 (or x s 1500).
Thus, the required function is:
f(x) = 3000x 2x
2
(0 s x s 1500)
Applied Example: Charter-Flight Revenue
If exactly 200 people sign up for a charter flight, Leisure
World Travel Agency charges $300 per person.
However, if more than 200 people sign up for the flight
(assume this is the case), then each fare is reduced by $1
for each additional person.
Letting x denote the number of passengers above 200, find
a function giving the revenue realized by the company.
Applied Example: Charter-Flight Revenue
Solution
This information was given.
If there are x passengers above 200, then the number of
passengers signing up for the flight is 200 + x.
The fare will be (300 x) dollars per passenger.
The revenue will be
R = (200 + x)(300 x)
=

x
2
+ 100x + 60,000
The quantities must be positive, so x > 0 and 300 x > 0
(or x s 300).
So the required function is:
f(x) =

x
2
+ 100x + 60,000 (0 s x s 300)
End of
Chapter

Functions and Their Graphs

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Functions and Their Graphs

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

The Cartesian Coordinate System

and Straight lines

Applied Example: Linear Depreciation

Rational and Power Functions

You might also like