Foundations in

Microbiology
Sixth Edition
Chapter 6
An Introduction to the
Viruses
Lecture PowerPoint to accompany
Talaro
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
2
3
General Structure of Viruses
Size range
most <0.2 m; requires electron microscope
Virion fully formed virus able to establish
an infection
4
5
General Structure of Viruses
Capsids
All viruses have capsids - protein coats that enclose
and protect their nucleic acid.
Each capsid is constructed from identical subunits
called capsomers made of protein.
The capsid together with the nucleic acid are
nucleoscapsid.
Some viruses have an external covering called
envelope; those lacking an envelope are naked

6
7
General Structure of Viruses
Two structural types:
helical - continuous helix of capsomers
forming a cylindrical nucleocapsid
icosahedral - 20-sided with 12 corners
vary in the number of capsomers
Each capsomer may be made of 1 or several proteins.
Some are enveloped.

8
9
10
General Structure of Viruses
Viral envelope
mostly animal viruses
acquired when the virus leaves the host cell
exposed proteins on the outside of the envelope,
called spikes, essential for attachment of the virus
to the host cell
11
Functions of Capsid/Envelope
Protects the nucleic acid when the virion is
outside the host cell
Helps to bind the virion to a cell surface and
assists the penetration of the viral DNA or
RNA into a suitable host cell
12
General Structure of Viruses
Complex viruses: atypical viruses
Poxviruses lack a typical capsid and are
covered by a dense layer of lipoproteins.
Some bacteriophages have a polyhedral
nucleocapsid along with a helical tail and
attachment fibers.
13
14
Nucleic acids
Viral genome either DNA or RNA but
never both
Carries genes necessary to invade host cell
and redirect cells activity to make new
viruses
Number of genes varies for each type of
virus few to hundreds

15
Nucleic Acids
DNA viruses
usually double stranded (ds) but may be single
stranded (ss)
circular or linear
RNA viruses
usually single stranded, may be double stranded, may
be segmented into separate RNA pieces
ssRNA genomes ready for immediate translation are
positive-sense RNA.
ssRNA genomes that must be converted into proper
form are negative-sense RNA.


16
General Structure
Pre-formed enzymes may be present.
polymerases DNA or RNA
replicases copy DNA
reverse transcriptase synthesis of DNA from
RNA (AIDS virus)
17
How Viruses are Classified
Main criteria presently used are structure,
chemical composition, and genetic makeup.
No taxa above Family (no kingdom, phylum, etc.)
Currently recognized: 3 orders, 63 families, and
263 genera of viruses
Family name ends in -viridae, i.e.Herpesviridae
Genus name ends in -virus, Simplexvirus
Herpes simplex virus I (HSV-I)

18
Modes of Viral Multiplication
General phases in animal virus multiplication
cycle:
1. Adsorption - binding of virus to specific
molecule on host cell
2. Penetration - genome enters host cell
3. Uncoating the viral nucleic acid is released
from the capsid
4. Synthesis viral components are produced
5. Assembly new viral particles are constructed
6. Release assembled viruses are released by
budding (exocytosis) or cell lysis



19
20
Adsorption and Host Range
Virus coincidentally collides with a susceptible
host cell and adsorbs specifically to receptor
sites on the cell membrane
Spectrum of cells a virus can infect host range
hepatitis B human liver cells
poliovirus primate intestinal and nerve cells
rabies various cells of many mammals


21
22
Penetration/Uncoating
Flexible cell membrane is penetrated by the
whole virus or its nucleic acid by:
endocytosis entire virus is engulfed and
enclosed in a vacuole or vesicle
fusion envelope merges directly with
membrane resulting in nucleocapsids entry
into cytoplasm
23
24
Replication and Protein Production
Varies depending on whether the virus is a
DNA or RNA virus
DNA viruses generally are replicated and
assembled in the nucleus.
RNA viruses generally are replicated and
assembled in the cytoplasm.
Positive-sense RNA contain the message for
translation.
Negative-sense RNA must be converted into
positive-sense message.

25
Release
Assembled viruses leave host cell in one of two
ways:
budding exocytosis; nucleocapsid binds to
membrane which pinches off and sheds the viruses
gradually; cell is not immediately destroyed
lysis nonenveloped and complex viruses released
when cell dies and ruptures
Number of viruses released is variable
3,000-4,000 released by poxvirus
>100,000 released by poliovirus

26
27
Damage to Host Cell
Cytopathic effects - virus-induced damage to
cells
1. Changes in size & shape
2. Cytoplasmic inclusion bodies
3. Nuclear inclusion bodies
4. Cells fuse to form multinucleated cells.
5. Cell lysis
6. Alter DNA
7. Transform cells into cancerous cells

28
Persistent Infections
Persistent infections - cell harbors the virus and
is not immediately lysed
Can last weeks or hosts lifetime; several can
periodically reactivate chronic latent state
measles virus may remain hidden in brain cells for
many years
herpes simplex virus cold sores and genital herpes
herpes zoster virus chickenpox and shingles

29
Some animal viruses enter host cell and permanently
alter its genetic material resulting in cancer
transformation of the cell.
Transformed cells have increased rate of growth,
alterations in chromosomes, and capacity to divide for
indefinite time periods resulting in tumors.
Mammalian viruses capable of initiating tumors are
called oncoviruses.
Papillomavirus cervical cancer
Epstein-Barr virus Burkitts lymphoma


30
Multiplication Cycle in
Bacteriophages
Bacteriophages bacterial viruses (phages)
Most widely studied are those that infect
Escherichia coli complex structure, DNA
Multiplication goes through similar stages as
animal viruses.
Only the nucleic acid enters the cytoplasm -
uncoating is not necessary.
Release is a result of cell lysis induced by viral
enzymes and accumulation of viruses - lytic cycle.
6 Steps in Phage Replication
1. Adsorption binding of virus to specific
molecule on host cell
2. Penetration genome enters host cell
3. Replication viral components produced
4. Assembly - viral components assembled
5. Maturation completion of viral formation
6. Release viruses leave cell to infect other cells
32
33
Lysogeny: The Silent Virus Infection
Not all phages complete the lytic cycle.
Some DNA phages, called temperate phages,
undergo adsorption and penetration but dont
replicate.
The viral genome inserts into bacterial genome and
becomes an inactive prophage - the cell is not lysed.
Prophage is retained and copied during normal cell
division resulting in the transfer of temperate phage
genome to all host cell progeny lysogeny.
Induction can occur resulting in activation of
lysogenic prophage followed by viral replication and
cell lysis.
34
35
Lysogeny
Lysogeny results in the spread of the virus
without killing the host cell.
Phage genes in the bacterial chromosome can
cause the production of toxins or enzymes that
cause pathology lysogenic conversion.
Corynebacterium diphtheriae
Vibrio cholerae
Clostridium botulinum
36
37
Techniques in Cultivating and
Identifying Animal Viruses
Obligate intracellular parasites that require
appropriate cells to replicate
Methods used:
cell (tissue) cultures cultured cells grow in sheets
that support viral replication and permit observation
for cytopathic effect
bird embryos incubating egg is an ideal system;
virus is injected through the shell
live animal inoculation occasionally used when
necessary


38
Prions and Other Infectious Particles
Prions - misfolded proteins, contain no nucleic
acid
cause transmissible spongiform encephalopathies
fatal neurodegenerative diseases
common in animals:
scrapie in sheep & goats
bovine spongiform encephalopathies (BSE), aka mad cow disease
wasting disease
humans Creutzfeldt-Jakob Syndrome (CJS)
Extremely resistant to usual sterilization
techniques

39
Other noncellular infectious agents
Satellite viruses dependent on other viruses
for replication
adeno-associated virus replicate only in cells
infected with adenovirus
delta agent naked strand of RNA expressed
only in the presence of hepatitis B virus
Viroids - short pieces of RNA, no protein
coat; only been identified in plants, so far
40
Detection and Treatment of Animal
Viral Infections
More difficult than other agents
Consider overall clinical picture
Take appropriate sample
Infect cell culture- look for characteristic cytopathic
effects
Screen for parts of the virus
Screen for immune response to virus (antibodies)
Antiviral drugs can cause serious side effects