CHAPTER 10: THE

SKELETAL SYSTEM

The Rigid Framework
of the Body
Skeletal Anatomy
Skeletal System
Mechanically, the skeletal system my be
thought of as an arrangement of rigid links
connected to each other at joints to allow
specific movements.
Knowledge of
the skeletal
system is
important for
ALL
movement
analysts
Composition and Structure of Bone
Tissue
Mechanical functions of bone
provides a rigid skeletal framework
to support and protect other tissues.
forms a system of rigid levers (links)
that can be moved by forces from the
attached muscles (rotated by torques
from the attached muscles).
Divisions of the Skeletal System (239):
Central or axial skeleton
skull, vertebrae, sternum, and
ribs
Peripheral or appendicular
skeleton
bones of the arms and legs
Bone Shape
The mechanical stresses imposed a bone
and its function determine its shape.
Three point bending test of an intact rat femur.
The resulting force-deflection curve from a three point bend test provides
the biomechanical properties of bone
Types of Bones
Short bones
Limited gliding motions and shock absorption.
Small, cubical structures (e.g., carpals, tarsals)
Types of bones
Short bones
Flat bones
Protection, provide attachment sites
Flat in shape (e.g., scapula)
Types of bones
Short bones
Flat bones
Irregular bones
Multi-functional
odd shapes (e.g., vertebrae)
Types of bones
Short bones
Flat bones
Irregular bones
Long bones
long shaft and bulbous heads (condyles, tubercles, or
tuberosities)
serve as levers for movement (e.g., tibia, femur,
humerus, radius, ulna, clavicle, fibula, metatarsals, and
the phalanges)
Material Constituents:
Calcium carbonate
calcium phosphate
collagen
water
60 to 70%
of mass
25 to 30% of bone mass
Material Constituents:
Calcium carbonate
calcium phosphate
collagen
water
stiffness
compressive
strength
flexibility (tensile strength)
tensile & compressive strength
Varies from person to person
Structural Organization
Cortical bone
(compact)
Low porosity
5-30% of bone
volume non-
mineralized tissue.

Trabecular
(spongy\cancellous)
High porosity
30 to > 90% volume
non-mineralized
tissue.

Load and Response
Stress
force per unit
area
Strain
deformation
amount of
deformation
divided by
original length
Life is an ongoing
cycle of repeated
applied external
stresses, interrupted
by applications of
isolated stresses of
varying magnitudes.
Generic
Stress-Strain Relationship
Strain (deformation)
Elastic
Limit
Bone
Stress-Strain Relationship
Strain (deformation)
Fracture
Threshold
Relative Bone Strength
S
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F
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Load Type
C
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p
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T
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Fractures: with excessive loads, bone tends to
fracture on the side loaded in tension.
Bone Growth and Development
Living bone is dynamic
continually changes throughout lifespan.
Longitudinal growth
length increases occur at the epiphyses
epiphyseal plates.
produce new bone tissue until closing during
adolescence or early adulthood.
Circumferential growth
Bones alter diameter throughout lifespan
most rapid change before adulthood.
Osteoblasts

form new
bone
Osteoclasts

resorb
existing bone
Critical factor in bone
modelling/remodelling:
balance of their action

Bone Response to Stress
Wolff's law (1892)
tissue adapts to level of imposed stress
increased stress
hypertrophy (increase strength)
decreased stress
atrophy (decrease strength)
SHAPE REFLECTS FUNCTION
Genetics, Body weight, physical activity,
diet, lifestyle (see note clippings)
(review the stress continuum)
Protecting our Bones in Sport
The pattern of
trabecular bone
in the
greater trochanter
neck of the femur
head of the femur
reflects femurs roles:
muscle attachment
flexibility
weight transfer
support

Atrophy in Bone
Weight & strength decrease
Calcium content diminishes
reduced BMD
trabecular integrity is lost

Bone stimulating factors
Rate of loading
Magnitude
Frequency
BMD and walking

Quartiles based on
miles walked/week

Krall et al, 1994, Walking is
related to bone density and rates
of bone loss. AJ SM, 96:20-26
Is physical
decline
inevitable
with
aging?
No.

Genetics
dominates.
But
lifestyle
modulates.
Changing concept of old age.
How much
activity do
we need?
The synovial joint
You should be able to draw and label this diagram.
Joint Architecture &
Classification
Synarthoses (immovable)
Amphiarthroses (slightly movable)
Diarthroses or synovial (freely
movable)
Get our attention
William Hunter (1743)
[The bone ends] are covered with a
smooth elastic crust, to prevent
mutual abrasion; connected with
string ligaments, to prevent dislocation;
and enclosed in a bag that contains a
proper fluid deposited there for
lubricating the two contiguous surfaces.
Synovial Joint Features
Articular (hyaline) cartilage
covers articulating surfaces
no blood vessels
no nerves
Serves 3 purposes:
reduces friction
increases articulating area to
reduce stress
shock absorption

Synovial Joint Features
Articular (hyaline) cartilage
Articular (fibrous/joint)
capsule
double layer membrane
surrounds synovial joint
outer connects bones
inner secretes synovial fluid
may have definite ligaments

Synovial Joint Features
Articular (hyaline) cartilage
Articular capsule
Synovial fluid
clear, slightly yellow liquid
lubricates joint
nourishes cartilage



Synovial Joint Features
Articular (hyaline) cartilage
Articular capsule
Synovial fluid
Fibrocartilage:
disc or partial disc between
articulating bones.
Intervertebral discs; menisci
increase surface area: reduce stress
improve fit of articulating surfaces
limits translation or slip of bones
shock absorption


Synovial Joint Features
Articular (hyaline) cartilage
Articular capsule
Synovial fluid
Fibrocartilage
Tendon sheaths
surround tendons located
close to bones
reduce stress on tendon
maintain low friction


Synovial Joint Features
Articular (hyaline) cartilage
Articular capsule
Synovial fluid
Fibrocartilage
Tendon sheaths
Bursae
small synovial fluid filled capsules
separate tendon from bone to
reduce friction


Mobility is a
very precious gift.

More complex than
the space shuttle.
Role of Meniscii
Meniscii effect on mechanical stress
Back pain 'starts in school
By Roger Highfield

Around half of all children are at risk of suffering a lifetime of back problems
because of awkward postures during lessons and using computers, furniture and other
equipment designed for adults.
Forty per cent of schoolchildren suffer health problems considered in adults to be
"work related that could affect them for the rest of their lives, said Prof Peter Buckle, of the
University of Surrey's Robens Centre for Health Ergonomics in Guildford.
He said a Danish study showed that 51 per cent of children aged 13 to 16 reported
low back pain in the previous year, and 24 per cent of 11- to14-year-olds in the north-west of
England reported having back pain in the month prior to completing a questionnaire.
"Under European laws the health of workers is protected," he said. "But when we
start to look at young adults and children the picture is far less clear.
"Worryingly, evidence is starting to show that, for some health problems, we may
be leaving it too late before we start helping."
A study found that those reporting low back pain in school were more likely to report low
back pain as adults.

(Filed: 10/09/2002) Copyright of Telegraph Group Limited 2002.

Joint Stability
Joint stability - resist abnormal
displacement of the articulating bones.

Dislocation - bones displace out of their normal
positions.

Subluxation - a partial dislocation of a joint.
Joint Stability
Dislocation - bones displace out of their
normal positions.
Impingement Subluxation Dislocation
Joint Stability
Contributing factors
shape of articulating surfaces
close-packed position: position of max contact
knee, wrist, interphalangeal: full extension
ankle: full dorsiflexion
loose-packed position: position other than c-p
most prone to dislocation, cartilage damage
Joint Stability
Fatigue or improper use of the joints are major
contributing factors.

Muscles add to joint stability.
Joint Stability

Contributing factors
arrangement of ligaments & muscles
concept of rotary & stabilizing components of
muscle/ligament tension
rotary: component that causes/tends to cause rotation
stabilizing: acts parallel to the bone
Joint Stability
Rotary component - perpendicular
component of a muscle force.
Stabilizing component - parallel component
of a muscle force acting toward the joint
center.
Dislocating component - parallel
component of a muscle force acting away
from the joint center.
Joint Stability
Fascia - fibrous connective tissue that
surrounds muscles and the bundles of
muscle fibers within muscles, providing
protection and support.
Iliotibial band.
Flexibility: ROM at a joint
Flexibility and Injury
Risk of injury is heightened when joint
flexibility is extremely low, extremely high,
or significantly imbalanced between
dominant and non-dominant sides of the
body.
Although people usually become less
flexible with age, a large part is due to
inactivity.
Joint Flexibility
Factors influencing joint flexibility:
Shape of articulating bones
other soft tissue: stiffness & mass
muscle: current tone
ligaments: arranged in direction of expected pull
fatty tissue
temperature: warmer = more pliant
past injury: collagen alignment integrity
clothing
AGE??? vs inactivity
Why is flexibility important?
Basic component of a fitness profile.

Why is flexibility important?
Basic component of a fitness profile.
allows for greater choice of movement patterns
slides of gymnasts
elderly shoulder ROM & independence
Osteoarthroses
contractures (ie cerrebral palsy)
sprain ankle & inflammation
Why is flexibility important?
Basic component of a fitness profile.
allows for greater choice of movement patterns
reduce risk of injury
absorb energy over a greater distance (time)
CAVEAT: Risk of injury increased with ROM high,
or low
slide & next overhead
From Cowan et al, 1988, ref #304
Why is flexibility important?
Basic component of a fitness profile.
allows for greater choice of movement patterns
reduce risk of injury
Increase forceful performance
apply force over a greater distance (time)
violation of principle of summation of joint force
violation of principle of IMPULSE
Techniques for increasing
joint flexibility
Best Advice:
Use It
Dont Lose It
How best to stretch?
Types of stretching:
Active - stretching muscles, tendons, &
ligaments by active development of tension
in the antagonist muscles
Passive - stretching muscles, tendons, &
ligaments by a force other than tension in
the antagonist muscles (gravity, another
segment, another person)
Types of stretching
Ballistic - a series of quick, bouncing
movements.
Static - a slow controlled stretch held over
time (10-30s, 3 to 4 reps)
Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation -
alternating contraction and relaxation of the
muscles being stretched.
Contract-relax& pull-contract
Techniques for increasing
joint flexibility
Review neural
innervation
Golgi tendon organs
located in junctions
between muscles and
tendons
responsive to tension in
tendon
inhibits tension
development in active
muscle

Techniques for increasing
joint flexibility
Review neural innervation
Golgi tendon organs
Muscle spindles
located parallel to the muscle fibers in the belly of
the muscle
responsive to lengthening of fibers (rate & length)
Stretch Reflex
activate stretched muscle, inhibit antagonist
(reciprocal inhibition)
Techniques for increasing
joint flexibility
Review neural innervation
Golgi tendon organs
Muscle spindles
Flexibility training goal
do not invoke stretch reflex (do not activate the
muscle group to be stretched) HOW???
activate golgi tendon organs (further inhibit the
muscle group to be stretched (reduce tonus))
HOW???