Want to represent 3-D crystal on 2-D paper

Use a Projection
A cubic xl like our model

Note poles (normals to xl
face planes)
Stereographic Projection
Fig 6.3 of Klein (2002)
Manual of Mineral Science,
John Wiley and Sons
Spherical Projection
Click to run animation Case Klein animation
for Mineral Science, John Wiley & Sons
The outer sphere
is a spherical
projection
Plot points
where poles
intersect sphere
Planes now =
points
But still 3-D
Stereographic Projection
Fig 6.3
Stereographic Projection
Gray plane =
Equatorial Plane
Want to use it as
our 2-D
representation
and project our
spherical poles
back to it
This is a 2-D
stereographic
projection
Fig 6.5 of Klein (2002)
Manual of Mineral Science,
John Wiley and Sons
Stereographic Projection
D and E are spherical
D' and E' are
stereographic
Distance GD' = f(r)
as r 90 D G
as r 0 D O
Fig 6.6 of Klein (2002) Manual of Mineral Science, John Wiley and Sons
Stereographic Projection
We can thus use
the angles and
calculate the 2-D
distances from
the center to find
the stereographic
poles directly
Or we can use
special graph
paper and avoid
the calculation
Fig 6.5 of Klein (2002)
Manual of Mineral Science,
John Wiley and Sons
Inclined Planes and Great Circles
Great Circle as stereographic
projection calculated from angle r
Great circles on stereographic
projection = locus of all points
projected from the intercept of an
inclined plane to the equatorial plane
(bowl analogy)- structural geology
Use your hand for dip and a pencil for
the pole of (011) at 45
o
from vertical
This is the graph
paper for avoiding
calculating the
distance from the
center as a function of
r each time
It is graduated in
increments of 20
o

(= zone)
Thus all poles in a
zone are on the
same great circle!!
How do we find the
zone axis??
Back to Fig. 2.42
(111) (100) (111)
(011) (100) all
coplanar
Fig 6.3 of Klein (2002) Manual of Mineral Science, John Wiley & Sons
Small circles
Gives angles between any two points on a great
circle
= the angle
between 2
coplanar
lines!!
20
o

The Wulff Net
Combines
great circles
and small
circles in 2
o

increments
Stereographic Projection
How to make a stereographic projection of our crystal
Use a contact goniometer to measure the interfacial
angles (also measures normals: poles)
Fig 6.2 of Klein (2002)
Manual of Mineral Science,
John Wiley and Sons
Plot Cardboard Model
Isometric System (p. 93)
Crystallographic Axes
The crystal forms of classes of the isometric system
are referred to three axes of equal length that make
right angles with each other. Because the axes are
identical, they are interchangeable, and all are
designated by the letter a. When properly oriented,
one axis, a
1
, is horizontal and oriented front to
back, a
2
is horizontal and right to left, and a
3
is
vertical.
+a
3

+a
1

+a
2

90
90
90
Plot (100) (001) (010) (110) (101) (011):
= top half
o = bottom half
How plot (111) ?
a) Plot (110) & then plot (111) between (110) and (001)
(110) (111) = 36.5
o

- go in from primitive
b) No measure technique:
(111) must lie between (110) & (001) (zone add rule)
also between (100) & (011)
thus intersection of great circles (111)
The finished product
face poles and principal zones
symmetry elements
Fig 6.8 of Klein (2002)
Manual of Mineral Science, John
Wiley and Sons
Once finished can determine the angles
between any 2 faces w/o measuring.
What is (100) (111) ?
(54.5
o
)
(111) (111) ?
(70
o
)
Model #75-
How can you use the position of the (111)
face on a stereonet to determine:
a/b?
b/c?
a/c?
Twinning
Rational symmetrically-related intergrowth
Lattices of each orientation have definite
crystallographic relation to each other
Twinning
Aragonite twin

Note zone at twin
plane which is
common to each
part
Redrawn from Fig 2-69 of Berry,
Mason and Dietrich, Mineralogy,
Freeman & Co.
Although aragonite is
orthorhombic, the twin looks
hexagonal due to the 120
o
O-C-O
angle in the CO
3
group
Twinning
Twin Operation is the symmetry operation which relates the two
(or more) parts (twin mirror, rot. axis)
1) Reflection (twin plane)
Examples: gypsum fish-tail, models 102, 108
2) Rotation (usually 180
o
) about an axis common to
both (twin axis): normal and parallel twins.
Examples: carlsbad twin, model 103
3) Inversion (twin center)
The twin element cannot be a symmetry element of the
individuals. Twin plane can't be a mirror plane of the crystal
Twin Law is a more exact description for a given type
(including operation, plane/axis, mineral)
Contact & Penetration twins
Both are simple twins only two parts
Multiple twins (> 2 segments repeated by same law)
Cyclic twins - successive planes not parallel
Polysynthetic twins
Albite Law
in plagioclase
Twinning
Mechanisms:
1) Growth
Growth increment cluster adds w/ twin orientation
Epitaxial more stable than random
Not all epitaxis twins
Usually simple & penetration
synneusis a special case
Twinning
Mechanisms:
1) Growth
Feldspars:
Plagioclase: Triclinic Albite-law-striations
b
a-c
b
a-c
Twinning
Mechanisms:
1) Growth
Feldspars:
Plagioclase: Triclinic Albite-law-striations
Twinning
Mechanisms:
2) Transformation (secondary)
SiO
2
: High T is higher symmetry
High Quartz P6
2
22 Low Quartz P3
2
21
cyclic twinning in
inverted low quartz
Twinning
Mechanisms:
2) Transformation (secondary twins)
Feldspars:
Orthoclase (monoclinic) microcline (triclinic)
Monoclinic
(high-T)
b
a-c
Triclinic
(low-T)
b
a-c
Twinning
Mechanisms:
2) Transformation (secondary)
Feldspars:
K-feldspar: large K lower T of transformation

tartan twins



Interpretation wrt petrology!
Twinning
Mechanisms:
3) Deformation (secondary)
Results from shear stress
greater stress gliding, and finally rupture
Also in feldspars.
Looks like transformation, but the difference in
interpretation is tremendous
Mechanisms:
3) Deformation (secondary)
Results from shear stress. Plagioclase
Mechanisms:
3) Deformation (secondary)
Results from shear stress. Calcite
X-ray Crystallography
X-ray wavelengths are on the same order of
magnitude as atomic spacings.
Crystals thus makes excellent diffraction gratings
Can use the geometry of the x-ray spots to
determine geometry of grating (ie the crystal)
X-ray Crystallography
X-ray generation
W C a t h o d e C u A n o d e
( - ) ( + )
X - r a y s
electrons
X-ray Crystallography
X-ray generation
Continuous & characteristic spectrum (Fig. 7.2)






Continuous from E loss of collisions
Characteristic is quantized
I
l
X-ray Crystallography
Destructive and constructive interference of waves
Bragg Equation:
Y
x
d
q
in phase in phase
q
q
q
q
X-ray Crystallography
nl=2dsinq n is the order
As soon as the crystal is rotated, the beam ceases
(This is diffraction, not reflection)
Only get diffraction at certain angles!
Relation between l and d and q
Y
x
d
X-ray Crystallography
Methods:
1) Single-Crystal: Laue Method
Several directions simultaneously fulfill Bragg equations
Good for symmetry, but poor for analysis because distorted
Fig 7.39 of Klein (2002) Manual of Mineral
Science, John Wiley and Sons
X-ray Crystallography
Methods:
1) Single-Crystal: Precession
Use motors to move crystal & film to satisfy Bragg
equations for different planes without distortions
Fig 7.40 of Klein (2002)
Manual of Mineral Science,
John Wiley and Sons
X-ray Crystallography
Methods:
2) Powder-
Easiest
Infinite orientations at once, so only need to vary q
Cameras and diffractometers