Ch 100: Fundamentals for Chemistry

Chapter 1: ntroduction
Lecture Notes
What is Chemistry?

Chemistry is considered to be the central science

Chemistry is the study of matter

Matter is the stuff that makes up the universe

The fundamental questions of Chemistry are:

How can matter be described?

How does one type of matter interact with other types of

matter?

How does matter transform into other forms of matter?

Scientific Method
1. Recognize a problem

Make observation

Ask a question
2. Make an educated guess - a hypothesis

Predict the consequences of the hypothesis

3. Perform experiments to test the predictions

Does experiment support or dispute hypothesis?

4. Formulate the simplest rule that organizes the 3
main ingredients - develop a theory
The Scientific Attitude

All hypotheses must be testable (i.e. there

must be a way to prove them wrong!!)

Scientific: Matter is made up of tiny

particles called atoms

Non-Scientific: There are tiny particles of

matter in the universe that will never be
detected
Major Develoments in Chemistry !
~400 BC: Democritus proposed the concept of the atom
~300 BC: Aristotle developed 1
st
comprehensive model of matter
~700 AD: Chinese alchemists invent gunpowder
1661: Robert Boyle proposed the concept of elements
1770-1790: Lavoisier proposed the concept of compounds & the Law of
Mass Conservation
1774: Priestly isolates oxygen
1797: Proust proposed the Law of Definite Proportions
1803: Dalton re-introduces the concept of the atom and establishes
Dalton's Laws
1869: Mendeleev creates the 1
st
Periodic Table
1910: Rutherford proposes the nuclear model of the atom
1915: Bohr proposes a planetary model of the hydrogen atom
1920: Schroedinger publishes his wave equation for hydrogen
1969: Murray Gell-Mann proposes the theory of QCD (proposing the
existence of quarks)

Discovery of subatomic particles:
1886: Proton (first observed by Eugene Goldstein)
1897: Electron (JJ Thompson)
1920: Proton (named by Ernest Rutherford)
1932: Neutron (James Chadwick)
Other Important Discoveries:
1896: Antoine Henri Becquerel discovers radioactivity
1911: H. Kamerlingh Onnes discovers superconductivity in low temperature
mercury
1947: William Shockley and colleagues invent the first transistor
1996: Cornell, Wieman, and Ketterle observe the 5
th
state of matter (the Bose-
Einstein condensate) in the laboratory
Major Develoments in Chemistry !!

Ch 100: Fundamentals for Chemistry
Chapter 2: Measurements & Calculations
Lecture Notes

Tyes of "#servations

Qualitative

Descriptive/subjective in nature

Detail qualities such as color, taste, etc.

Example: t is really warm outside today

Quantitative

Described by a number and a unit (an accepted

reference scale)

Also known as measurements

Example: The temperature is 85

o
F outside
today

Measurements

Described with a value (number) & a unit

(reference scale)

Both the value and unit are of equal

importance!!

The value indicates a measurement's size

(based on its unit)

The unit indicates a measurement's

relationship to other physical quantities

Scientific $otation

Technique Used to Express Very Large or

Very Small Numbers

Based on Powers of 10

To Compare Numbers Written in Scientific

Notation

First Compare Exponents of 10 (order of

magnitude)

Then Compare Numbers

Writin% $um#ers in Scientific $otation
1
Locate the Decimal Point
2
Move the decimal point to the right of the
non-zero digit in the largest place

The new number is now between 1 and 10

3
Multiply the new number by 10
n

where n is the number of places you moved the

decimal point
4
Determine the sign on the exponent, n

f the decimal point was moved left, n is +

f the decimal point was moved right, n is

f the decimal point was not moved, n is 0

Writin% $um#ers in Standard Form
1
Determine the sign of n of 10
n

f n is + the decimal point will move to the right

f n is the decimal point will move to the left

2
Determine the value of the exponent of 10

Tells the number of places to move the decimal

point
3
Move the decimal point and rewrite the
number

Measurement Systems
There are 3 standard unit systems we will focus
on:
1. United States Customary System (USCS)

formerly the British system of measurement

Used in US, Albania, and a couple others

Base units are defined but seem arbitrary (e.g. there are
12 inches in 1 foot)
2. Metric

Used by most countries

Developed in France during Napoleon's reign

Units are related by powers of 10 (e.g. there are 1000

meters in 1 kilometer)
3. S (L'Systeme nternationale)

a special set of metric units

Used by scientists and most science textbooks

Not always the most practical unit system for lab work

&elated 'nits in the Metric System

All units in the metric system are related to

the fundamental unit by a power of 10

The power of 10 is indicated by a prefix

The prefixes are always the same,

regardless of the fundamental unit

'nits ( Measurement

When a measurement has a specific unit (i.e.

25 cm) it can can be expressed using
different units without changing its meaning

Example:

25 cm is the same as 0.25 m or even 250 mm

The choice of unit is somewhat arbitrary,

what is important is the observation it
represents

Measurement ( 'ncertainty

A measurement always has some

amount of uncertainty

Uncertainty comes from limitations of

the techniques used for comparison

To understand how reliable a

measurement is, we need to
understand the limitations of the
measurement

Measurements ( Si%nificant Fi%ures

To indicate the uncertainty of a single

measurement scientists use a system
called significant figurs

The last digit written in a measurement

is the number that is considered to be
uncertain

Unless stated otherwise, the uncertainty

in the last digit is 1

&ules for Countin% Si%nificant Fi%ures

Nonzero integers are always significant

Zeros

Leading zeros never count as significant figures

Captive zeros are always significant

Trailing zeros are significant if the number has a

decimal point

Exact numbers have an unlimited number of

significant figures

&ules for &oundin% "ff

f the digit to be removed

is less than 5, the preceding digit stays the same

is equal to or greater than 5, the preceding digit

is increased by 1

n a series of calculations, carry the extra

digits to the final result and then round off

D!n"t f!rgt t! a## $%ac-h!%#ing &r!s if

ncssar' t! ($ )a%u th sa*++

)*act $um#ers

,-act .u*/rs are numbers known with

certainty

Unlimited number of significant figures

They are either

counting numbers

number of sides on a square

or defined

100 cm = 1 m, 12 in = 1 ft, 1 in = 2.54 cm

1 kg = 1000 g, 1 LB = 16 oz

1000 mL = 1 L; 1 gal = 4 qts.

1 minute = 60 seconds

Convertin% #et+een 'nit Systems
To convert from one unit to another:

dentify the relationship between the units (e.g.

100 cm = 1 m)

Write out the starting measurement and multiply

it by a quantity that will yield the desired value:
25 cm ( ) = _____ m

The number in the ( ) is called the conversion

factor

Metric ,refi*es

Wei%ht vs- Mass

Mass is the amount of

stuff in an object

Mass is inertia

Mass is the same

everywhere in the
universe

S Units of mass are

kilograms (kg)

Weight is the effect

of gravity on an
object's mass

Weight is a force

Weight depends on
location

S units of weight
are newtons (N)

USCS units are

pounds (lb)

.olume

The 3-D space an object occupies

The S unit is m
3
(meters x meters x meters)

The common metric unit is the Liter (L)

Mass and volume are not the same thing

Do not confuse mass & volume

Density

Density is a property of matter representing the mass per

unit volume

For equal volumes, denser object has larger mass

For equal masses, denser object has small volume

Solids = g/cm
3

1 cm
3
= 1 mL

Liquids = g/mL

Gases = g/L

Volume of a solid can be determined by water

displacement

Density : solids > liquids >>> gases

n a heterogeneous mixture, denser object sinks

Volume
Mass
Density =


'sin% Density in Calculations
Volume
Mass
Density =
Density
Mass
Volume =
Volume Density Mass =

Ch 100: Fundamentals for Chemistry
Chapter 3: Matter & Energy
Lecture Notes

ntroduced observation as an important

step in understanding the natural world

All types of matter are mixtures of one of

4 basic elements:

All matter has one or more of 4 basic

qualities:

According to Aristotle:

Any substance could be transformed into

another substance by altering the relative
proportion of these qualities (i.e. lead to gold)
Aristotle /0123044 5C6
26 Fire 46 Water
06 Air 16 )arth
26 Dry 46 Moist
06 7ot 16 Cold

,hysical ( Chemical ,roerties

0h'sica% 0r!$rtis are the characteristics of

matter that can be changed without changing
its composition

Characteristics that are directly observable

Ch*ica% 0r!$rtis are the characteristics

that determine how the composition of matter
changes as a result of contact with other
matter or the influence of energy

Characteristics that describe the behavior of matter

,hysical ( Chemical Chan%es

0h'sica% Changs are changes to matter

that do not result in a change the
fundamental components that make that
substance

State Changes : boiling, melting, condensing

Ch*ica% Changs involve a change in the

fundamental components of the substance

Produce a new substance

Chemical reaction

Reactants Products

Solid Liquid Gas
States of Matter
State

Shape

Volume

Compress

Flow
Solid Keeps
Shape
Keeps
Volume
No No
Liquid Takes
Shape of
Container
Keeps
Volume
No Yes
Gas Takes
Shape of
Container
Takes
Volume of
Container
Yes Yes


+Energy +Energy
Solid Liquid Gas
+Energy +Energy

Classification of Matter
Matter can be classified as either Pure or mpure:

Pure

Element: composed of only one type of atom

Composed of either individual atoms or molecules (e.g. O

2
)

Compound: composed of more than one type of atom

Consists of molecules

mpure (or mixture)

Homogeneous: uniform throughout, appears to be one thing

pure substances

solutions (single phase homogeneous mixtures)

Suspensions (multi-phase homogeneous mixtures)

Heterogeneous: non-uniform, contains regions with different properties

than other regions
P u r e S u b s t a n c e
C o n s t a n t C o m p o s i t i o n
H o m o g e n e o u s
M i x t u r e
V a r i a b l e C o m p o s i t i o n
M a t t e r

Searation of Mi*tures

A pure substance cannot be broken down into its

component substances by physical means only by a
chemical process

The breakdown of a pure substance results in formation of

new substances (i.e. chemical change)

For a pure substance there is nothing to separate (its only 1

substance to begin with)

Mixtures can be separated by physical means (and

also by chemical methods, as well)

There are 2 general methods of separation

Physical separation

Chemical separation

Methods of Searation

There are 2 ways of separating various substances:

1) Physical separation: separation of substances by their physical
properties (such as size, solubility, etc.)

Mixtures can be separated by physical separation

There are several methods of separating mixtures

Filtration (solids from liquids)

Distillation (liquids from liquids)

Centrifugation (liquids from liquids)

2) Chemical separation: separation of substances by their chemical
properties

Usages:

Compounds can be separated into their individual elements

Mixtures can be separated by chemical separation as well

There are several methods of chemical separation

on exchange (such as water purification systems)

Chemical affinity (using antibodies to isolate specific proteins)

Various Chemical reactions

)ner%y

The capacity of something to do work

chemical, mechanical, thermal, electrical,

radiant, sound, nuclear

The S unit of energy is the Joule (J)

Other common units are

Calories (cal)

Kilowatt-hour (kW
.
hr)

Types of energy:

Potential

Kinetic

Heat

Energy cannot be created nor destroyed (but it

does change from one type to another!)

7eat ( Temerature

Temperature is _____.

how hot or cold something is (a physical property)

related to the average (kinetic) energy of the substance

(not the total energy)

Measured in units of

Degrees Fahrenheit (
o
F)

Degrees Celsius (
o
C)

Kelvin (K)

Heat is energy that _____.

flows from hot objects to cold objects

is absorbed/released by an object resulting in its change

in temperature

Heat absorbed/released is measured by changes in

temperature

Temerature Scales

Fahrenheit Scale, F

Water's freezing point = 32F, boiling point = 212F

Celsius Scale, C

Temperature unit larger than the Fahrenheit

Water's freezing point = 0C, boiling point = 100C

Kelvin Scale, K

Temperature unit same size as Celsius

Water's freezing point = 273 K, boiling point = 373 K

Temerature of ice +ater and #oilin% +ater-

7eat

Heat is the flow of energy due to a temperature

difference

Heat flows from higher temperature to lower

temperature

Heat is transferred due to collisions between

atoms/molecules of different kinetic energy

When produced by friction, heat is mechanical

energy that is irretrievably removed from a
system

Processes involving Heat:

1. Exothermic = A process that releases heat energy.

Example: when a match is struck, it is an exothermic

process because energy is produced as heat.
2. Endothermic = A process that absorbs energy.

Example: melting ice to form liquid water is an endothermic

process.

7eat /cont-6

The heat energy absorbed by an object is

proportional to:

The mass of the object (m)

The change in temperature the object undergoes

(T)

Specific heat capacity (s) (a physical property unique to

the substance)

To calculate heat (Q):

1 2 s
3
*
3
4

Secific 7eat Caacity /s6

The amount of heat energy (in J or Cal) required to

increase the temperature of 1 gram of a
substance by 1
o
C (or 1K)

The Units of Specific Heat Capacity:

1. J/g
o
C (S)
2. cal/g
o
C (metric & more useful in the lab)

Specific Heat Capacity is a unique physical

property of different substances

Metals have low specific heat capacity

Non-metals have higher specific heat capacity

Water has an unusually large specific heat capacity

s = Q/(mT)


Ta#le of Secific 7eat for various su#stances
8 40
o
C
Substance c in J/gm K
c in cal/gm K or
Btu/lb F
Molar C
J/mol K
Aluminum 0-900 0-41: 42-0
5ismuth 0-140 0-0492 4:-;
Coer 0-01< 0-0940 42-:
5rass 0-010 0-094 ---
=old 0-14< 0-0001 4:-<
>ead 0-141 0-000: 4<-2
Silver 0-400 0-0::1 42-9
Tun%sten 0-102 0-0041 42-1
?inc 0-01; 0-094: 4:-4
Mercury 0-120 0-000 41-0
Alcohol/ethyl6 4-2 0-:1 111
Water 2-11< 1-00 ;:-4
!ce /310 C6 4-0: 0-29 0<-9
=ranite -;90 0-19 ---
=lass -12 0-40 ---

Ch 100: Fundamentals for Chemistry
Chapter 4: Elements, ons & Atoms
Lecture Notes

Dmitri Mendeleev /11023190;6

Russian born chemist

Considered one of the

greatest teachers of his time

Organized the known

elements into the first
periodic table

Elements organized by
chemical properties (& by
weight) -> called periodic
properties

Predicted the existence of 3

new elements

Chemical Sym#ols ( Formulas

Each element has a unique chemical symbol

Examples of chemical symbols:

Hydrogen: H

Oxygen: O

Aluminum: Al

Each molecule has a chemical formula

The chemical formula indicates

the chemical symbol for each of the elements present

The # of atoms of each element present in the

molecule

Examples of chemical formulas:

Elemental oxygen: O
2
(2 O atoms per molecule)
Water: H
2
O (2 H atoms & 1 O atom)
Aluminum sulfate: Al
2
(SO
4
)
3
(2 Al, 3 S & 12 O atoms)

Dalton@s Atomic Theory
1. Each element consists of individual
particles called atoms
2. Atoms can neither be created nor destroyed
3. All atoms of a given element are identical
4. Atoms combined chemically in definite
whole-number ratios to form compounds
5. Atoms of different elements have different
masses

The Atom
The atom has 2 primary regions of interest:
1) Nucleus

Contains protons & neutrons (called nucleons, collectively)

Establishes most of the atom's mass

Mass of 1 neutron = 1.675 x10

-27
kg

Mass of 1 proton = 1.673 x10

-27
kg

Small, dense region at the center of the atom

The radius of the nucleus ~ 10

-15
m (1 femtometer)
2) The Electron Cloud

Contains electrons

Mass of 1 electron = 9.109 x10

-31
kg

Establishes the effective volume of the atom

The radius of the electron cloud ~ 10

-10
m (1 Angstrom)

Determines the chemical properties of the atom

During chemical processes, interactions occur between the outermost

electrons of each atom

The electron properties of the atom will define the type(s) of interaction
that will take place

Structure of the Atom

)lectric Char%e

Electric charge is a fundamental property of matter

We don't really know what electric charge is but we do know

that there are 2 kinds:

Positive charge (+)

Negative charge (-)

Opposite charge polarity is attractive:

+ attracts -

Same charge polarity is repulsive:

+ repels + and repels

The magnitude of electric charge (q) is the same for protons

and electrons:

The charge of a proton or electron is the smallest amount

that occurs in nature, it is called the quantum of charge:
q
proton
= +1.602 x 10
-19
Coulombs
q
electron
= -1.602 x 10
-19
Coulombs

What holds the atom to%ether?

Electromagnetic interaction (a.k.a. electric force) holds

the electrons to the nucleus

The negative charge (-) of the electrons are attracted to

the positive charge (+) of the nucleus

Strong interaction (a.k.a. strong force) holds the

nucleons together within the nucleus

The positive charge of the protons repel each other

All nucleons, protons and neutrons, possess a STRONG

attraction to each other that overcomes the protons'
mutual repulsion

Atomic 5ooAAeein%

Atomic number (Z)

The number of protons in an atom

The number of protons in an uncharged atom

Determines the identity of the atom

Mass number (A)

The number of protons & neutrons in an element

Determines the weight of the atom

To determine number of neutrons in an atom:

5 !f nutr!ns 2 67ass 58 6At!*ic 58
9r
5 !f nutr!ns 2 A - :

Mass B vs- Atomic Mass

sotopes are the equivalent of sibling members of an

element

Unique atoms of the same element with different mass numbers

(i.e. they have different numbers of neutrons)

Unique isotopes are identified by their mass number

sotope notation:

Example: carbon-12 ( ) & carbon-14 ( )

Atomic mass

The average total mass of an element's various naturally occuring

isotopes

The unit of Atomic Mass is the Dalton (formerly called the amu)

1 Dalton = one twelfth mass of one

12
C atom = 1.661x10
-27
kg

Note: There 6 protons & 6 neutrons in a

12
C atom but the mass of a
12
C
atom is actually less than the combined mass of all of the nucleons
individually.

;hr is this %!st *ass< Its released as energy when the nucleons
combine (bind) to form the nucleus of the atom.
(Atomic Symbol)
Mass #
Atomic #
C
1
!
C
1"
!

)*amles of !sotoes

The ,eriodic Ta#le

All of the known elements are arranged in a

chart called the Periodic Table

The elements are arranged by similarity of

chemical properties

Each element is identified by its Atomic

Number

The elements are organized left-to-right and

top-to-bottom by their Atomic Number

The columns are called Groups

Elements of each group have similar properties

The rows are called Periods

)lements and the ,eriodic Ta#le
The elements can be categorized as

Metals

The leftmost elements of the periodic table

Roughly 70% of all of the elements

Nonmetals

The rightmost elements of the periodic table

Semimetals (metalloids)

The elements between the metals and nonmetals

Properties are not quite metal or non-metal

!ons

Atoms (or molecules) that have gained or

lost one or more electrons

ons that have lost electrons are called

cati!ns

ons that have gained extra electrons are

called ani!ns

onic compounds have both cations and

anions (so that their net charge is zero)

!ons /cont-6

ons have electric charge:

=+> when 1 or more electrons are lost
=-> when 1 or more electrons are gained

When an atom/molecule is an ion, its charge

must be specified:

Sodium ion: Na
+

Chloride ion: Cl
-

Hydroxide ion: OH
-

Notes on Electric Charge:

Opposite charges attract

Like charges repel

# $
# #
$ $

Ch 100: Fundamentals for Chemistry
CH 100: Chemical Nomenclature
(a.k.a. naming compounds)

Antoine >avoisier /1;2031;926

Considered by many to be the

Father of Modern Chemistry

Major contributions included

Demonstrated that water cannot be

transmuted to earth

Established the Law of Conservation

of Mass

Developed a method of producing

better gunpowder

Observed that oxygen and hydrogen

combined to produce water (dew)

nvented a system of chemical

nomenclature (still used in part today!)

Wrote the 1
st
modern chemical
textbook

Tyes of Comounds

When compounds are formed they are held

together by the association of electrons

This association is called a chemical bond

There are 3 general types of chemical bonds:

1. onic
2. Covalent (or molecular)
3. Polar covalent

Simple compounds are classified (and thus

named) according to the type of chemical bond(s)
that hold together its atoms
Note: many compounds have more than one type of
chemical bond present, but we will only work with
simple compounds!

Tyes of Comounds /cont-6
For practical purposes will separate compounds into
2 general categories:

onic

Made up of ions (both positive and negative charge)

Must have no net charge (i.e. combined charge of zero)

Depend on the attraction between positive and negative

charges of the ions

Usually a metal is present as a cation and a nonmetal is

present as an anion

Molecular (or covalent)

Made up of atoms that share their outer electrons

Charge plays no direct role in their formation

Usually no metals are present

$amin% Comounds

Easiest way to identify an ionic compound is

to ask whether or not it has a metal present:
?s -> ionic (e.g. CaCl
2
)
.! -> covalent (e.g. CCl
4
)

Covalent compounds require the use of

Greek prefixes to indicate the number of
each element present in one molecule

onic compounds do not use the Greek

prefixes

$amin% Simle Comounds
A simple or binary compound is a compound made
of only 2 types of elements

When the first element is a metal:

The first element (metal) keeps its full name

The non-metal goes by its root with the suffix -ide

added to the end
Example: NaCl is sodium chloride

When there are no metals present

Same as above except

Greek prefixes must be used to identify the number of

each element present in the compound
Example: CO
2
is carbon dioxide

!onic Char%es ( the ,eriodic Ta#le

Group 1 metals form 1+ cations (Na

+
sodium ion)

Group 2 metals form 2+ cations (Ca

2+
calcium ion)

Group 13 metals form 3+ cations (Al

3+
aluminum ion)

All other metals (i.e. the transitional metals, Pb, etc.) form
more than one type of cation

Roman numerals must be used to indicate the charge of the

cation

Example:
Fe
3+
is called iron()
FeCl
3
is called iron() chloride

Exceptions:
Ag
+
, Cd
2+
& Zn
2+

Group 15 nonmetals form 3- anions (N

3-
nitride ion)

Group 16 nonmetals form 2- anions (O

2-
oxide ion)

Group 17 nonmetals form 1- anions (Cl

-
chloride ion)

Group 18 nonmetals do not form ions

=reeA ,refi*es for Comound $ames
1) Mono-
2) Di-
3) Tri
4) Tetra-
5) Penta-
CCl
4
is carbon tetrachloride
6) Hexa-
7) Hepta-
8) Octa-
9) Nona-
10) Deca-
C
3
H
8
is tricarbon octahydride
%otes&
16 ,refi*es are used +hen the comound does not have a metal
resent /or +hen 7 is the first element in the formula6
46 ,refi*es must #e used for every element resent in the comound
06 mono3 is not used for the first element in a comound name /e-%-
car#on dio*ide6

!onic Comounds containin%
,olyatomic ions

Some ionic compounds are made up of

polyatomic ions

When you encounter this, do not freak out!!

Become familiar with the polyatomic ions on

the handout
Example: the nitrate ion (NO
3
-
)

The naming of this type of compound is

similar to that for ionic compounds

Acids

From the Latin term for sour{Acids are sour to the taste}

Acids are substances that donate protons (H

+
) (usually
when dissolved in water)

Chemical formula usually begins with H

,-a*$%: h'#r!ch%!ric aci#
@C%6aA8 + @
2
96%8 @
3
9
+
+ C%
-
6aA8

Taste bitter

Usually metal containing hydroxides

Substances that accept protons (H

+
) when dissolved in
water
,-a*$%: $!tassiu* h'#r!-i#
B9@6aA8 + @
3
9
+
B
+
6aA8 + @
2
9 6%8
5ases

$amin% Acids
Lets separate acids into 2 types:

Acids that contain oxygen

Acids that do not contain oxygen

Naming acids containing oxygen:

For acids containing -ate anions:

1. Use root of the anion (for sulfate, SO
4
2-
, use sulfur)
2. Add -ic suffix then end with acid
Example: H
2
SO
4
is sulfuric acid

For acids with -ite anions:

1. Use root of the anion (for sulfite, SO
3
2-
, use sulfur)
2. Add -ous suffix then end with acid
Example: H
2
SO
3
is sulfurous acid

$amin% Acids /cont-6
Naming acids not containing oxygen:

Add hydro- prefix to beginning

Use root of the anion (i.e. Cl

-
use chlor)

Add -ic suffix then end with acid

Example: HCl is hydrochloric acid
Name the following acids:
HF
HNO
2
HCN
H
3
PO
4

Ch 100: Fundamentals for Chemistry
Chapter 6: Chemical Reactions

Chemical &eactions /!ntro6

When matter undergoes chemical changes these

processes are called chemical reactions

Substances that undergo the change(s) are called

the reactants

The resulting substances are called the products

Standard form of a chemical reaction:

Cactant6s8 0r!#uct6s8
,-a*$%:
2@
2
6g8 + 19
2
6g8 2@
2
9 6g8

4h un#r%in# nu*/rs ar ca%%# c!fficints3

4h nu*/r !f ach *!%cu% f!r ach ractant D

$r!#uct in th ch*ica% racti!n

4h' ar a%Ea's Eh!% nu*/rs

Chemical &eactions /cont-6
Balanced chemical reactions indicate the ____

identity of each reactant & product involved in

the reaction

phase of each reactant and product involved in

the reaction (i.e. solid (s), liquid (l) or gas (g))

relative quantity of each reactant and product

involved in the reaction (the coefficients!)

relative *!%ar quantity of each reactant and

product involved in the reaction (the
coefficients!)

&ates of Chemical &eactions

How quickly a chemical reaction occurs is

indicated by its reaction rate

How quickly the concentration of products increases

How quickly the concentration of reactants decreases

Factors that influence reaction rates:

Reactants must be in contact

Reactions occur due to collisions

Without contact between reactants there can be no reaction

Concentration of reactants

The more reactant molecules packed into a given space the

more likely a collision (& reaction) will occur

Temperature

the average KE of each reactant affects how much energy will

be transferred between reactants during a molecular collision

Molecules must transfer enough KE to break the existing bonds

)ner%y in Chemical &eactions
Fntrna%
,nrg'
Cactants
0r!#ucts
Activation
Energy (E
A
)
Energy
Released (Q)
,-!thr*ic Cacti!ns
Fntrna%
,nrg'
Cactants
0r!#ucts
Activation
Energy (E
A
)
Energy
Absorbed (Q)
,n#!thr*ic Cacti!ns

)ner%y in &eactions /cont-6
Fntrna%
,nrg'
2.a6s8 + 2@
2
96%8
2.a9@6aA8 + @
2
6g8
Low Activation
Energy (E
A
)
Garg a*!unt !f
,nrg' C%as#
618
,-a*$%: H!#iu* ;atr Cacti!n

Catalysts

Catalysts are substances that speed up chemical

reactions

Allow reactions to occur that might not otherwise take

place (due to low temperature for example)

Lower activation energy for a chemical reaction

Do not participate in the reaction

They may undergo a chemical change as a reactant but they are

always recycled as a product (so there is no net change in the
catalyst molecule)

Catalysts are indicated in a chemical reaction by

placing the chemical formula over/under the
reaction arrow.
,-a*$%:
Cactants 0r!#ucts
catalyst

Catalysts ( )ner%y in &eactions
Fntrna%
,nrg'
Cactants
0r!#ucts
Acti)ati!n ,nrg'
Eith cata%'st
Cata%'sts %!Er Acti)ati!n ,nrg'
Acti)ati!n ,nrg'
Eith!ut cata%'st

)ndothermic or )*othermic?
/that is the CuestionD6
n chemical reactions:

Energy is required to break bonds (energy absorbed)

Energy is released when bonds are formed

The amount of energy required to break a chemical bond is

the same as the energy released when the bond is formed,
this is called B!n# ,nrg'

During a chemical reaction:

Energy is absorbed equal to the bond energies for all

bonds broken in the reactants

Energy is released equal to the bond energies for all

bonds formed in the products

Endothermic reactions absorb more energy than they

release

Exothermic reactions release more energy than they absorb

5alancin% Chemical &eactions

According to the Law of Mass Conservation (& John

Dalton!) matter is never created nor destroyed

All atoms in the reactants of a chemical reaction must be

accounted for in the products

The Basic Process:

dentify all reactants & products in the reaction & write out
their formulas (this is the unbalanced chemical e"uation)

Count the number of each atom for each compound for each
reactant & product
(these values must be the same for both reactants & products when the reaction
is balanced!)

Starting with the most complicated molecule,

systematically adjust the coefficients to balance # of the
atoms on each side of the reaction (balance one atom at a
time)

Repeat until all atoms are balanced for the reaction

Now you have a balanced chemical equation!

5alancin% Chemical &eactions
/e*amle6
When sodium metal is added to water a violent
reaction takes place producing aqueous
sodium hydroxide and releasing hydrogen
gas.
1. Write out the unbalanced chemical reaction:
2. Now, balance the chemical reaction:

5alancin% Chemical &eactions /7int6

When a polyatomic ion(s) appears on both

the reactant & product side of the reaction
unchanged, treat the whole ion as a unit
when balancing the reaction

Example:

Note the nitrate ion (NO

3
-
) gets swapped
between the Ag
+
and the Ca
2+
ions in this
reaction

So NO
3
-
can be treated as a whole unit when
balancing this reaction

Balance it!
A%$"
0
/aC6 E CaCl
4
/aC6 A%Cl/s6 E Ca/$"
0
6
4
/aC6

Ch 100: Fundamentals for Chemistry
Chapter 7: Chemical Reactions in
Aqueous Solutions

Drivin% Forces ( Chemical &eactions

The tendency for reactants to undergo chemical

changes (reactions) to form products are called
driving forces

There are 4 common driving forces:

1. Formation of a solid (precipitation reaction)
2. Formation of water (acid-base reaction)
3. Transfer of electrons (oxidation-reduction reaction)
4. Formation of a gas (bad taco reaction )

When 2 or more chemicals are brought together,

if any of these things can happen, a chemical
change is likely to occur

When one of these processes occurs, we

describe the resulting chemical reaction based on
the driving force

Solu#ility

A measure of how much of a solute will dissolve in a solvent

is called its solubility

Solubility is temperature dependent

Solid solubility increases with increased temperature (i.e. you can

dissolve more sugar in hot water than in cold water)

Gas solubility increases with decreased temperature (i.e. you can

dissolve more CO
2
in cold water than hot water)

A solute is soluble if any of it will dissolve in a solvent

NaCl is soluble in water

A solute is insoluble if no appreciable amount of it will

dissolve in solvent

AgCl is insoluble in water

When 2 solutions are combined and result in the formation of

an insoluble product:

The product will not dissolve in the solvent

The product will form a precipitate

Precipitation (formation of a solid) is one indication that a
chemical change has occurred!
,reciitation &eactions

in all precipitation reactions, the ions of one

substance are exchanged with the ions of another
substance when their aqueous solutions are
mixed

At least one of the products formed is insoluble in

water
K(aq) + AgNO
3
(aq) KNO
3
(aq) + Ag(s)
F
E
!
3
A%
E
$"
0
3
F
E
$"
0
3
A% !
Dissociation

ionic compounds

metal + nonmetal (Type & )

metal + polyatomic anion

polyatomic cation + anion

when ionic compounds dissolve in water the

anions and cations are separated from each
other; this is called #iss!ciati!n

we know that ionic compounds dissociate when

they dissolve in water because the solution
conducts electricity
Dissociation /e*amles6

potassium chloride dissociates in water into

potassium cations and chloride anions
KCl(aq) = K
+
(aq) + Cl
-
(aq)

copper() sulfate dissociates in water into

copper() cations and sulfate anions
CuSO
4
(aq) = Cu
+2
(aq) + SO
4
2-
(aq)
F
E
Cl
3
F Cl
Cu
E4
S"
2
43
Cu S"
2
Dissociation /e*amle6

potassium sulfate dissociates in water into

potassium cations and sulfate anions
K
2
SO
4
(aq) = 2 K
+
(aq) + SO
4
2-
(aq)
F
E
S"
2
43
F
E
F F S"
2
,rocess for ,redictin% the ,roducts of
a ,reciitation &eaction
1) Determine what ions each aqueous reactant has
2) Exchange ons

(+) ion from one reactant with (-) ion from other
3) Balance Charges of combined ions to get formula
of each product
4) Balance the Equation

count atoms
5) Determine Solubility of Each Product in Water

solubility rules

if product is insoluble or slightly soluble, it will

precipitate
Solu#ility &ules
1. Most compounds that contain NO
3
-
ions are soluble
2. Most compounds that contain Na
+
, K
+
, or NH
4
+
ions
are soluble
3. Most compounds that contain Cl
-
ions are soluble,
except AgCl, PbCl
2
, and Hg
2
Cl
2
4. Most compounds that contain SO
4
2-
ions are
soluble, except BaSO
4
, PbSO
4
, CaSO
4
5. Most compounds that contain OH
-
ions are slightly
soluble (will precipitate), except NaOH, KOH, are
soluble and Ba(OH)
2
, Ca(OH)
2
are moderately
soluble
6. Most compounds that contain S
2-
, CO
3
2-
, or PO
4
3-
ions
are slightly soluble (will precipitate)
!onic )Cuations

equations which describe the chemicals put into the water and
the product molecules are called *!%cu%ar Auati!ns
KCl(aq) + AgNO
3
(aq) KNO
3
(aq) + AgCl(s)

equations which describe the actual ions and molecules in the

solutions as well as the molecules of solid, liquid and gas not
dissolved are called i!nic Auati!ns
K
+
(aq)
+ Cl
-
(aq)
+ Ag
+
(aq)
+ NO
3
-
(aq)
K
+
(aq)
+ NO
3
-
(aq)
+ AgCl
(s)

ions that are both reactants and products are called s$ctat!r
i!ns
K
+
(aq)
+ Cl
-
(aq)
+ Ag
+
(aq)
+ NO
3
-
(aq)
K
+
(aq)
+ NO
3
-
(aq)
+ AgCl
(s)

an ionic equation in which the spectator ions are dropped is

called a nt i!nic Auati!n
Cl
-
(aq)
+ Ag
+
(aq)
AgCl
(s)
)lectrolytes

electrolytes are substances whose aqueous

solution is a conductor of electricity

all electrolytes have ions dissolved in water

in str!ng electrolytes, virtually a%% the molecules

are dissociated into ions

in n!nelectrolytes, n!n of the molecules are

dissociated into ions

in Ea( electrolytes, a s*a%% $rcntag of the

molecules are dissociated into ions
&eactions that Form Water:
Acids E 5ases

Acids all contain H

+
cations and an anion

Bases all contain OH

-
anions and a cation

when acids dissociate in water they release

H
+
ions and their anions

when bases dissociate in water they release

OH
-
ions and their cations
Acid35ase &eactions

in the reaction of an acid with a base, the H

+
from
the acid combines with the OH
-
from the base to
make water

the cation from the base combines with the anion

from the acid to make the salt
aci# + /as sa%t + Eatr
H
2
SO
4
(aq) + Ca(OH)
2
(aq) CaSO
4
(aq) + 2 H
2
O(l)

the net ionic equation for an Acid-Base reaction is

always
H
+
(aq) + OH
-
(aq) H
2
O(l)
&eactions of Metals +ith $onmetals
/"*idation3&eduction6

The metal loses electrons and becomes a

cation

We call this process !-i#ati!n

The nonmetal gains electrons and becomes

an anion

We call this process r#ucti!n

n the reaction, electrons are transferred

from the metal to the nonmetal
"*idation3&eduction &eactions

All reactions that involve a transfer of one or

more electrons are called !-i#ati!n-
r#ucti!n racti!ns

We say that the substance that loses

electrons in the reaction is !-i#i&# and the
substance that gains electrons in the
reaction is r#uc#3
're(icting 'ro(ucts o)
Metal # %onmetal *eactions

metal + nonmetal ionic compound

ionic compounds are always solids unless dissolved in

water

in the ionic compound the metal is now a cation

in the ionic compound the nonmetal is now an

anion

to predict direct synthesis of metal + nonmetal

1) determine the charges on the cation and anion
(from their position on the Periodic Table)
2) determine numbers of cations and anions needed to
have charges cancel
3) balance the equation
Another Find of
"*idation3&eduction &eaction

Some reactions between two non-metals are also

oxidation-reduction reaction

Any reaction in which O

2
is a reactant or a product
will be an oxidation-reduction reaction

Examples:
CH
4
(g) + 2 O
2
(g) CO
2
(g) + 2 H
2
O(g)
2 SO
3
(g) 2 SO
2
(g) + O
2
(g)
Ways to Classify &eactions

Reactions that involve solid formation are

called $rci$itati!n racti!ns

Reactions that involve water formation are

called aci#-/as racti!ns

Both precipitation reactions and acid-base

reactions involve compounds exchanging
ions, ion exchange reactions are called
#!u/% #is$%ac*nt racti!ns
Dou#le Dislacement &eactions

two ionic compounds exchange ions

X

Y (aq) + AB (aq) XB + AY

reaction will not occur unless one of the

products either (1) precipitates or (2) is water
Ways to Classify &eactions

Reactions that involve electron transfer are called

!-i#ati!n-r#ucti!n racti!ns

Metals + Nonmetal
O
2
as a reactant or product

Reactions that occur in aqueous solution where one

of the products is a gas are called gas f!r*ing
racti!ns
NaHCO
3
(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + CO
2
(g) + H
2
O(l)
Ways to Classify &eactions

Reactions that involve one ion being

transferred from one cation to another are
called sing% r$%ac*nt racti!n
X

Y

+ A

X + A

Examples:
Zn(s) + 2 HCl(aq) ZnCl
2
(aq) + H
2
(g)
Fe
2
O
3
(s) + 2 Al(s) 2 Fe(s) + Al
2
O
3
(s)
"ther Ways to Classify &eactions

Reactions in which O
2
(g) is reacted with a
carbon compound are called C!*/usti!n
Cacti!ns

Combustion reactions release a lot of energy

Combustion reactions are a subclass of

Oxidation-Reduction reactions

Combustion of carbon compounds produces

CO
2
(g)

Combustion of compounds that contain

hydrogen produces H
2
O(g)
C
3
H
8
(g) + 5 O
2
(g) 3 CO
2
(g) + 4 H
2
O(g)
"ther Ways to Classify &eactions

Reactions in which chemicals combine to

make one product are called H'nthsis
Cacti!ns

Metal + Nonmetal reactions can be classified

as Synthesis Reactions
2 Na(s) + Cl
2
(g) 2 NaCl(s)

Reactions of Metals or Nonmetals with O

2
can
be classified as Synthesis Reactions
N
2
(g) + O
2
(g) 2 NO(g)

These two types of Synthesis Reactions are

also subclasses of Oxidation-Reduction
Reactions
"ther Ways to Classify &eactions

Reactions in which one reactant breaks

down into smaller molecules are called
Dc!*$!siti!n Cacti!ns

Generally initiated by addition of energy

Addition of electric current or heat

Opposite of a Synthesis Reaction

2 NaCl(l) 2 Na(l) + Cl
2
(g)
electric
current

Ch 100: Fundamentals for Chemistry
Chapter 8 Lecture Notes
(Sections 8.1 to 8.5)

Amadeo Avo%adro
/1;2031;926

talian lawyer turned chemist

Major contributions included:

Established difference between atoms & molecules:

Oxygen & nitrogen exist as molecules O
2
& N
2

Reconciled the work of Dalton & Guy-Lussac

Establishing Avogadro's Principle: e"ual volumes of all gases

at the same temperature and pressure contain the same number of
molecules.

Did not determine Avogadro's number nor the mole

(these concepts came later)

Avogadro is honored because the molar volume of all

gases should be the same

Much of Avogadro's work was acknowledged after he

died, by Stanislao Cannizarro

The Mole

A counting unit (similar to the dozen)

A large unit used to describe large quantities such as

number of atoms
1 mole = 6.022 x 10
23
units

6.022 x 10
23
is known as Avogadro's number (N
A
)

Relationship between the mole & the Periodic

Table

The atomic mass is the quantity (in grams) of 1 mole of

that element

The units of atomic mass are grams/mole

Mass is used by chemists as a way of counting

number of atoms/molecules of a substance

Mole calculations

Got mole problems?
Call Avogadro at 602-1023.
Answer: molasses (a mole of asses)
What do you get if you have
Avogadro's number of
donkeys?

Molar Mass

Mass in grams of 1 mole of a substance

Refers to both atoms & molecules

Elements (atoms)
Examples:
1 mole of Na has a mass of 22.99 g
1 mole of Cl has a mass of 35.45
1 mole of Cl
2
has a mass of 70.90 g

Compounds (molecules)
Examples:
1 mole of NaCl has a mass of 58.44 g

Mass of Na (22.99 g) + Mass of Cl (35.45 g)

1 mole of CO
2
has a mass of 44.01 g

Mass of C (12.01 g) + 2 x Mass of O (16.00 g)

Mole Calculations /16

Atoms/Molecules to Moles

Divide # of atoms (or molecules) by Avogadro's #

Example: How many moles are 1.0x10
24
atoms?

Moles to Atoms/Molecules

Multiply # of atoms (or molecules) by Avogadro's #

Example: How many molecules are in 2.5 moles?
42
40
1
/1-0 10 6 1-;
<-044 10
mole
atoms moles

=

40
42
<-044 10
/4-: 6 1-: 10
1
moles molecules
mole

=



Mole Calculations /46

Moles to Grams

Multiply the # of moles by atomic mass

Example: How many grams in 2.5 moles of carbon?

Grams to Moles

Divide the mass in grams by atomic mass

Example: How many moles are in 2.5 grams of lithium?
1
14-01
/4-: 6 00- / 0 10 6
1
grams
moles grams or
mole

=


1
1
/4-: 6 0-0< / 0-< 10 6
<-921
mole
grams moles or
grams

=



,ercent Comosition

Percentage of each element in a compound (by

mass)

Can be determined from:

1. the formula of the compound or
2. the experimental mass analysis of the compound
Note: The percentages may not always total to 100%
due to rounding
G 100G
part
Composition
whole

=



,ercent Comosition Calculations

To determine % Composition from the chemical

formula:

Determine the molar mass of compound

Multiply the molar mass of the element of interest by the

number of atoms per molecule then

Divide this value by the molar mass of the compound

Example: The % Composition of sodium in table salt
1. The molar mass of NaCl is 58.44 g/mol
2. There is 1 atom of Na in each NaCl molecule
3. The atomic mass of Na is 22.99
/B 6/ 6
G 100G
atoms of A atomic mass of A
Composition of A
molar mass of compound

=


1 44-99
G 100G 09-00G
:1-22
Composition of Na


= =



,ercent Comosition Calculations
Perform the following % Composition
calculations:
1.The % composition of carbon in carbon
monoxide
2.The % composition of oxygen in water
3.The % composition of chlorine in sodium
hypochlorite

Ch 100: Fundamentals for Chemistry
Ch 9: More on Chemical Reactions
Lecture Notes (Sections 9.1 to 9.2)

Chemical )Cuations:
What do they tell us?

A properly written chemical equation will

provide the following information:
1. All reactants & products involved in the
reaction
2. The physical state of all reactants & products
3. The presence of any catalysts involved in the
chemical reaction
4. The relative quantity of all reactants &
products

!nformation =iven #y the
Chemical )Cuation

Balanced equation provides the relationship

between the relative numbers of reacting
molecules and product molecules
2 CO + O
2
2 CO
2
2 CO molecules react with 1 O
2
molecules to
produce 2 CO
2
molecules

!nformation =iven #y the
Chemical )Cuation

Since the information given is relative:

2 CO + O
2
2 CO
2
200 CO molecules react with 100 O
2
molecules to produce
200 CO
2
molecules
2 billion CO molecules react with 1 billion O
2
molecules to
produce 20 billion CO
2
molecules
2 moles CO molecules react with 1 mole O
2
molecules to
produce 2 moles CO
2
molecules
12 moles CO molecules react with 6 moles O
2
molecules to
produce 12 moles CO
2
molecules

!nformation =iven #y the
Chemical )Cuation

4h c!fficints in th /a%anc# ch*ica%

Auati!n sh!Es th *!%cu%s an# *!%
rati! !f th ractants an# $r!#ucts

Since moles can be converted to masses,

we can determine the mass ratio of the
reactants and products as well

!nformation =iven #y the
Chemical )Cuation
2 CO + O
2
2 CO
2
2 moles CO = 1mole O
2
= 2 moles CO
2
Since 1 mole of CO = 28.01 g, 1 mole O
2
= 32.00
g, and 1 mole CO
2
= 44.01 g
2(28.01) g CO = 1(32.00) g O
2
= 2(44.01) g CO
2

1. Write the balanced equation
2 CO + O
2
2 CO
2
2. Use the coefficients to find the mole
relationship
2 moles CO = 1 mol O
2
= 2 moles CO
2
)*amle:
Determine the $um#er of Moles of Car#on Mono*ide
reCuired to react +ith 0-4 moles "*y%enH and determine the
moles of Car#on Dio*ide roduced

3. Use dimensional analysis
C" moles <-2
" mole 1
C" moles 4
* " moles 0-4
4
4 =
4
4
4
4 C" moles <-2
" mole 1
C" moles 4
* " moles 0-4 =
)*amle /cont-6
Determine the $um#er of Moles of Car#on Mono*ide
reCuired to react +ith 0-4 moles "*y%enH
and determine the moles of Car#on Dio*ide roduced

Ch 100: Fundamentals for Chemistry
Ch 14: Solutions & Concentration
Lecture Notes

Solutions

Solutions are single phase homogenous mixtures

Solutions consist of:

Solvent: the component in largest quantity

Solute(s): the other components

The solute is considered to be dissolved in the

solvent

When a solution has not reached its limit of

dissolved solute it is an unsaturated solution

When a solution has reached its limit of dissolved

solute and any added solute will not dissolve, it is
a saturated solution

Concentration

A measure of how much of a substance (solute)

is dissolved in another substance (solvent)

To calculate [concentration]:

Common usages of concentration:

Mass (m/v) conc. (units are grams/L, grams/mL, etc.)

Volume (v/v) conc. (unit-less, often % is used)

Molarity (units are moles/L or M)

[ ]
( )
( ) solvent of amount
solute of amount
solute of conc = -

Mass ,ercent /G6

Concentration of a solute dissolved in a solvent

(in grams per unit gram of solution)

To determine mass percent

Divide mass of solute (in grams) by the total mass of

solution (in grams) and multiply this ration by 100%
,-a*$%: What is the mass percent of 30.0 grams of NaCl
in a 150.0 gram solution?
1usti!ns: (a) How much CaCl
2
is in 250.0 grams of solution
where the mass percent of CaCl
2
is 30.0%? (b) How much Cl
-

is in this solution?
G 100 G

=
solution of mass
solute of mass
Mass
G 0 - 40 G 100
0 - 1:0
0 - 00
G =

=
solution grams
NaCl grams
Mass

Molarity

Concentration of a solute (in moles per unit

volume) dissolved in a solvent

S units are moles/liter, or M (molarity or molar

concentration)

To determine molarity from mass concentration

Simply a unit conversion from grams to moles (using

atomic or molar mass as the unit conversion)
,-a*$%: What is the molarity of a NaCl solution with
concentration of 30.0 grams/L?
The molar mass of NaCl is 22.99 + 35.45 = 58.44 grams/mol
1usti!n: What is the molarity of Na
+
and Cl
-
in this solution?
[ ] M
grams
mol
L
grams
NaCl :10 - 0
22 - :1
1
1
0 - 00
=

=

The 7 Scale

The acidity (or concentration of H

+
) of a solution is
often measured using the pH scale

The pH scale is based on the molarity of H

+
ions in
solution

The pH scale ranges from 0 (acidic) to 14 (basic)

When pH=7.0 the solution is neutral acidity, there is

equal concentration of H
+
and OH
-
in the bulk liquid

To calculate pH from [H
+
] (in mol/L): pH=-log
10
[H
+
]
Example: a solution with [H
+
]=1.0x10
-5
M
[H
+
]=1.0x10
-5
M then pH = -log
10
(1.0x10
-5
) = 5.0

To calculate [H
+
] from pH: [H
+
]=10
-pH
Example: a solution with pH = 9.0
pH = 9.0 then [H
+
]=10
-9.0
M = 1.0x10
-9
M

7 Concet Iuestions

What is the [H
+
] for a 0.5 M HCl solution?

0.5 M

What is the [H
+
] for a 0.5 M H
3
PO
4
solution?

Less than 0.5 M

Do the 2 solutions above have the same pH?

No, pH depends on [H
+
] not [acid]

Why or why not?

HCl is a strong acid but H

3
PO
4
is a weak acid

How does a strong acid differ from a weak acid?

Strong acids dissociate all of their H

+
ions when in
water whereas weak acids do not!