Compendium Review

Major Topic One: Oxygen, Microbes, Immunity

Table of Contents

Part 1
The Cardiovascular System and Blood Vessels
The Heart
Cardiovascular Pathways and Features
Cardiovascular Disorders

Part 2
Blood, Red Blood Cells, Oxygen Transportation, and RBC Disorders
White Blood Cell Types and Disorders
Platelets, Their Functions, and Disorders
Blood Types and Transfusions

Part 3
Lymphatic System
Microbes, Pathogens, and Humans (Oh My!)
Immunity and its Defenses
Immunization and Antibodies
Immune System Complications and Disorders
Part 3
 Lymphatic System
 Microbes, Pathogens, and
Humans (Oh My!)
 Immunity and its Defenses
 Immunization and
Antibodies
 Immune System
Complications and Disorders

Picture from http://www.womentowomen.com/detoxification/default.aspx

 Lymphatic System
The lymphatic system has 4 functions which play a part in homeostasis: lymphatic vessels,
organs, lymphocytes, and defense. The red bone marrow, located in the center of certain
bones, creates all blood cells. Located in the thoracic cavity is the thymus gland which
produces thymic hormones and aids in maturation of T-cells. The largest organ of the
lymphatic system is known as the spleen and its job is to filter blood of pathogens and waste.
A collection of lymphatic tissue (no capsule) is known as a lymphatic nodule, such as the
tonsils. They perform the same duties as the lymph nodes and are usually the first to come
across a pathogen. Any pathogens which enter through the intestinal tract are encountered
by Peyer’s Patches, a cluster of lymph tissue.
• Lymphatic vessels transport excess
lymph (fluid) from tissues to
cardiovascular system. The fluid is
filtered in lymph nodes by
lymphocytes and macrophages. They
help fight infections.
• Lymphatic organs: Consist of primary
(thymus gland and red bone marrow)
and secondary (spleen and lymph
nodes). WBCs and lymphocytes (B-
cells and T-cells) are made in red
bone marrow, but T-cells have an
additional screening process in the
thymus gland before maturation.

Picture from http://www.siteman.wustl.edu/xmlfiles/Media_big/CDR0000533339.jpg

Part 3
 Lymphatic System
 Microbes, Pathogens, and Humans (Oh My!)
 Immunity and its Defenses
 Immunization and Antibodies
 Immune System Complications and Disorders

Picture from http://neuroscience.ucdavis.edu/healthandsafety/OccupationalHealthandSafety.html

 Microbes, Pathogens, and Humans (Oh My!)
Microbes, short for microorganisms, are a class or organisms that are too small to see
with the naked eye; they must be viewed by a microscope. Microbes include the
following organisms: bacteria's, fungi, archaea (prokaryotic, single-celled organisms),
and protists (eukaryotes not classified in plant, fungi, or animal kingdoms). Microbes
are found all over the world. They are on the Earth’s surface, airs and waters; on and in
humans, animals, and plants. Pathogens are infectious agents, such as bacteria or
viruses, which cause disease and illness.
Bacteria
• Prokaryotes
• Three shapes: Bacillus (rod), Coccus
(spherical), and Spirillum (curved).
• Some have sticky capsule which allows
them to bind to things; makes
phagocytosis difficult.
• Some have stiff hair-like fibers called
fimbriae which allow them to bind and
hold to surfaces such as a host cell.
• A larger hair-like structure on the
surface of bacteria, known as a pilus,
acts like a bridge and transfers
plasmids.
• Many have plasmids, DNA rings, which
carry antibiotic resistant genes. Picture from http://www.arabslab.com/
vb/showthread.php?t=577
Microbes, Pathogens, and Humans (Oh My!)

C. Jejuni is a
spiral-shaped
bacteria

Salmonella is a rod-
shaped bacteria

Picture from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria &

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Proteobact
eria & http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salmonella
 Microbes, Pathogens, and Humans (Oh My!)
Virus is Latin for poison or toxin. Viruses are not composed of cells and do not
reproduce or grow outside of a host cell. However, they do contain genes and can
reproduce once they are in a cellular life form. A virus is an infectious agent which
causes disease and illness and cannot be treated by antibiotics. Some diseases caused
by viruses are the common cold and flu, polio, chicken pox, measles, cold sores, genital
warts and herpes, rabies, Ebola, SARS, certain influenzas like bird flu, Hepatitis B and C,
and AIDS. Viruses can be spread by a vector, such as an animal (mosquito). Another
infectious agent known as Prions (proteinaceous infectious particle) cause Creutzfeldt-
Jakob disease in humans and bovine spongiform encephalopathy (mad cow disease) in
cattle. The disease effects the brain and nervous tissue of individuals.

Ebola Virus
“The range of sizes shown by
viruses, relative to those of other Pictures and verbiage from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebola &
organisms and biomolecules.” http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus#Viruses_and_disease
 Microbes, Pathogens, and
Description from Scheme of Influenza A virus replication Humans (Oh My!)
(NCBI): "A virion attaches to the host cell membrane via
HA and enters the cytoplasm by receptor-mediated A virus attaches to the host cell and
endocytosis (Step 1), thereby forming an endosome. A enters endocytosis. The capsid protein
cellular trypsin-like enzyme cleaves HA into products HA1 dissociates and the viral RNA is
and HA2 (not shown). HA2 promotes fusion of the virus transported to the nucleus. In the nucleus,
envelope and the endosome membranes. A minor virus the viral polymerase complexes transcribe
envelope protein M2 acts as a ion channel thereby making and replicate the RNA. Viral mRNAs
the inside of the virion more acidic. As a result, the major migrate to cytoplasm where they are
envelope protein M1 dissociates from the nucleocapsid and translated into protein. Then the newly
vRNPs are translocated into the nucleus (Step 2) via synthesized virions bud from infected cell.
interaction between NP and cellular transport machinery. In
the nucleus, the viral polymerase complexes transcribe
(Step 3a) and replicate (Step 3b) the vRNAs. Newly
synthesized mRNAs migrate to cytoplasm (Step 4) where
they are translated. Posttranslational processing of HA, NA,
and M2 includes transportation via Golgi apparatus to the
cell membrane (Step 5b). NP, M1, NS1 (nonstructural
regulatory protein - not shown) and NEP (nuclear export
protein, a minor virion component - not shown) move to the
nucleus (Step 5a) where bind freshly synthesized copies of
vRNAs. The newly formed nucleocapsids migrate into the
cytoplasm in a NEP-dependent process and eventually
interact via M1 with a region of the cell membrane where
HA, NA and M2 have been inserted (Step 6). Then the
newly synthesized virions bud from infected cell (Step 7).
NA destroys the sialic acid moiety of cellular receptors,
thereby releasing the progeny virions." Pictures and verbiage from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebola &
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus#Viruses_and_disease
Part 3
 Lymphatic System
 Microbes, Pathogens, and Humans (Oh My!)
 Immunity and its Defenses
 Immunization and Antibodies
 Immune System Complications and Disorders

“Specific, or adaptive immunity is often sub-divided into two major types depending on how the
immunity was introduced. Natural immunity occurs through contact with a disease causing agent,
when the contact was not deliberate, whereas artificial immunity develops only through deliberate
actions. Both natural and artificial immunity can be further subdivided, depending on the amount of
time the protection lasts. Passive immunity is short lived, and usually lasts only a few months,
whereas protection via active immunity lasts much longer, and is sometimes life-long. The diagram
below summarizes these divisions of immunity... The innate system is present from birth and
protects an individual from pathogens regardless of experiences, whereas adaptive immunity
arises only after an infection or immunization and hence is "acquired" during life.”
Picture & verbiage from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunity_%28medical%29
Immunity and its Defenses
Immunity is the defense that a body takes to fight disease, infection, and unwanted pathogen
invasion. The immune system does this two ways: the body builds barriers and produces an
inflammatory response.
Inflammatory Response
Barriers
• Histamine (chemical) released which promotes capillary
2. Skin and mucous dilation
membranes are a barrier
• Skin turns red and hot due to increase in blood flow.
3. Chemical secretions on WBCs also come to area due to blood flow increase
the skin, along with saliva
• Blood clotting takes place
and tears contain
antibacterial enzymes • Neutrophils and monocytes phagocytize pathogens
4. Microbes which presently • Pus is created if neutrophils die in large numbers. If they
live in the body aid in are overwhelmed they will secrete a chemical called
pathogen occupancy cytokines which attract more phagocytic cells, such as
macrophages (large phagocytic cell) and WBCs, to the
damaged area.
Skin

Tissue

Picture from Human Biology by

Sylvia S. Mader page 129
Capillary
 Immunity and its Defenses
Part of the Immune system, known as the compliment system, aids in fighting pathogens by
way of compliment proteins (blood plasma proteins). Some proteins aid in the inflammatory
response by attaching to mast cells and activate chemical release. Other compliment
proteins attract phagocytic cells to certain areas. Some proteins stick to the surface of
pathogens to ensure phagocytosing will take place, while others form a membrane attack
complex by making holes in the surface of the pathogen, allowing salts and fluids to enter
which ultimately burst it. Once a cell is infected by a virus, it sends interferons, or protein
signals, to noninfected cells to warn them of the foreign agent.

“Complement proteins circulate in the blood in an inactive

form. When the first protein in the complement series is
activated— typically by antibody that has locked onto an
antigen—it sets in motion a domino effect. Each component
takes its turn in a precise chain of steps known as the
complement cascade. The end product is a cylinder inserted
into—and puncturing a hole in—the cell’s wall. With fluids
and molecules flowing in and out, the cell swells and bursts.”

“The classical pathway of activation of the complement

system is a group of blood proteins that mediate the specific
antibody response. The alternative pathway of the
complement system is a humoral component of the immune
system's natural defense against infections which can
operate without antibody participation. The alternative
pathway is one of three complement pathways that
opsonizes and kills pathogens. The alternative pathway does
not require a specific antibody to commence.”
Picture & verbiage from
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Classical_complement_pathway&oldid=19
2341349 &
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alternative_complement_pathway&oldid=1
 Immunity and its Defenses

If barriers, inflammatory response, or the

complementary system do not prevent infection,
then the body has specific defenses which it
utilizes. Protein or polysaccharide substances
known as antigens alert the system to create
antibodies. B-cells and T-cells pick up on the
alerts and bind their receptors to the antigens,
go through clonal expansion, and produce
antibodies to the antigen. B-cells are stimulated
to clone by T-cells cytokines. Some cloned B-
cells become memory cells (ready to make
specific antibody in future) and others become
plasma cells (make specific antibody). When the
infection clears, the plasma cells undergo
apoptosis (cell death). This whole process is
known as antibody-mediated immunity.

Picture from Human Biology by Sylvia S. Mader Page 131

 Immunity and its Defenses
T-cells pick up on the alerts from antigen-presenting cells (APC).
Without APCs, a T-cell cannot recognize an antigen. The APC will
phagocytize the pathogen and then move to a place where T-
cells gather, such as the spleen or lymph nodes. The APC breaks
the pathogen apart and moves a piece to a major
histocompatibility complex (MHC) protein in the plasma
membrane (the protein in humans is called human leukocyte
antigens). The T-cells receptor bind with the antigen which
activates clonal expansion, and produce either cytotoxic T-cells
or helper T-cells depending on what HLA protein the antigen is
presented in (HLAI or HLAII).
The cytotoxic T-cells bind to the Picture from Human Biology by Sylvia S. Mader Page
134-135
infected cells, release periforin
and granzymes, and cause the
infected cells to undergo
apoptosis. Periforin molecules
make holes in the infected cells
membrane while granzymes
enter the holes and cause the
cells to die. This whole process
is known as cell-mediated
immunity.
The helper T-cells release
cytokines (chemical) which
increases all immune cells
efforts. The remaining memory
T-cells stay in the body as a
back-up to the immune system
incase that antigen every
becomes present again.
 Immunity and its Defenses: Antibody Structures
Picture from Human
There are 5 groups of Antibodies Biology by Sylvia S.
Mader Page 132

The structure of an antibody is Y-

shaped made out of polypeptide
chains. Some antibodies cover
antigens by means of
neutralization, causing an immune
complex by the bundling of
antigens.
Part 3
 Lymphatic System
 Microbes, Pathogens, and Humans (Oh My!)
 Nonspecific and Specific Defenses
 Immunization and Antibodies
 Immune System Complications and Disorders

This child is receiving a

Polio vaccination

Picture from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunization

Immunization and Antibodies
Picture from Human Biology by Sylvia S. Mader Page 137
Active immunity is when antibodies are
produced by the body. A person can
naturally develop antibodies if they
have been immunized. Immunization is
the process of injecting, by means of
vaccination, antigen substances to
induce immune system responses.
Once vaccinated, ones plasma can be
observed for antibodies. This is known
as the antibody titer.
Passive immunity is when the body is
given antibodies because the individual
does not make them. For example,
babies receive certain antibodies when
they cross the placenta or through
breast feeding. Gamma globulin
injections are given to people to help
boost their immune systems. Gamma
globulin is a substance which contains
antibodies to particular infectious
diseases.
 Immunization and Antibodies Pictures from Human Biology by Sylvia S. Mader Page 137 &
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immune_system#Disorders_of_human_im
munity

The plasma cells which are cloned from B-cells

secrete monoclonal antibodies, or antibodies which
are of the same type as the antibodies from the
cloned cell. Monoclonal antibodies are used being
used for certain cancers, by binding to infected cells
antigens and promoting an immunological response.
Monoclonal antibody therapy (MAb) is also being used
to deliver radioisotopes to certain tumors.

This picture shows how a plasma cell fused with a cancer cell
produces hybridoma cells which manufacture the monoclonal
antibodies
“Macrophages have
identified a cancer
cell (the large,
spiky mass). Upon
fusing with the
cancer cell, the
macrophages
(smaller white
cells) will inject
toxins that kill the
tumor cell.
Immunotherapy for
the treatment of
cancer is an active
area of medical
research.”
Part 3
 Lymphatic System
 Microbes, Pathogens, and Humans (Oh My!)
 Nonspecific and Specific Defenses
 Immunization and Antibodies
 Immune System Complications and Disorders

“…[this is a] picture of a human cell amplified by

a powerful microscope; the cell on the left is what
a normal healthy cell should look like covered in
glycoforms and complement proteins. The cell on
the right has altered glycoforms and missing
complement proteins due to specific glycoprotein Pictures from
deficiencies.” (Lupus) http://www.diseaseeducation.com/diseases/Lupus.php
 Immune System Complications and Disorders
Disorders of the immune system fall into three categories:
immunodeficiencies, autoimmunity, and hypersensitivities.
Immunodeficiencies Hypersensitivities
When part(s) of the immune system Hypersensitivities is a bad reaction from a
is inactive it is known as normal immune systems to a substance such as
immunodeficiency. One may lack the allergies. Coming in contact with a foreign
ability of the phagocyte function, the substance, known as a allergen, can evoke an
complement activity, or cytokine immediate allergic response. Some people
production. Immunodeficiencies can undergo an instantaneous reaction to allergens
be brought on by poor health and known as anaphylactic shock, where their blood
lack of nutrients, or it can be pressure drops and they have difficulty
inherited (Chronic granulomatous breathing. Some people experience delayed
disease) or acquired (AIDS). allergic responses due to the regulation of
Autoimmunity cytokines.

Autoimmunity is when the immune

system attacks part(s) of the body, such Pollen is a large
as cells and tissues, because it fails to cause of allergies
recognize between self and non-self.
Some autoimmune diseases are multiple
sclerosis, myasthenia gravis, systemic
lupus erythematosus, and rheumatoid
Picture from
arthritis. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hay_fever
 Immune System Complications and Disorders

Some organs can be implanted from

one human to another; however there “A series of steps that
may be undertaken to
can be complications. Due to tissue
generate
rejection, because the immune system histocompatible lungs
does not recognize the new organs as and kidneys for patients
self, transplantees have to take with diseases of these
immunosuppressive drugs. organs. ES = embryonic
Immunosuppressive drugs are used to stem.”
suppress the immune system to
prevent rejection of transplanted
organs. In addition to human organ
transplants, genetically engineered
animal organs are being used in hopes
of less rejection. The use of animal
organs is known as
xenotransplantation. Also, with the
advances in technology, tissue
regeneration is helping to make organs
that will be rejection free because they
are grown from the patients own stem
cells. Picture & Verbiage from http://www.mayoclinicproceedings.com/inside.asp?AID=866&UID=
This diagram shows the
process of making a
transgenic animal for
xenotransplantation
purposes.

Picture from
http://cseserv.engr.scu.edu/StudentAccounts
/ENGR019Winter2002/MSaeed/ResearchPape
r.htm
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