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Magnetic Surveying
MAGNETICS
Introduction
Geo & Paleo
Magnetism
Role of Geo & Paleo in
Geophysics & Geology
Like other geophysical methods, magnetism is
also divided into Applied & Paleo areas.
Geomagnetism deals with the exploration of
minerals, basement under sedimentary
column (oil industry), salt domes, igneous
bodies in the subsurface, groundwater in
igneous terrain.
Paleomagnetism deals with the history of
magnetic poles/polarity, history of rocks, and
plate tectonics.
Units Associated with Magnetic
Poles
N / (Amp - m). A N / (Amp - m) is
referred to as a tesla (T)
F= G m1 m2
r2
Features of a magnetic Bar
Magnetic bar has two magnetic poles: S N
North pole or +ve pole, and South pole or ve pole.
The poles are located 1/12 of bar length inside from the end.
Magnetic bar is surrounded by a magnetic field
produced by magnetic lines of force which flow from
north to south pole.
If an iron needle goes in the magnetic field or touches
the pole, the needle is magnetized and starts behaving
as a tiny magnet.
Bar magnet behaves as a Line magnet.
Magnetic Parameters
Magnetic moment(M)=2L*m,
where L is half the distance between two poles, m is the
magnetic poles.
If L is reduced to infinitesimal ds, then bar is converted into
Magnetic Particle, its magnetic moment is M= m*ds,
If magnetic bars are placed end-on or side by side, then
M=n*m*2L
Unit magnetic pole when is placed 1 cm away from similar pole,
is acted upon by a force of 1 dyne.
Unit pole is also equivalent to 4 (12.5667) lines of force.
A magnetic pole of strength m will generate 4*m lines of
force.


Magnetic Permeability
Lord Kelvin defined Permeability as the ease
with which a magnetic flux can be established
in a body.
Permeability is a ratio between the magnetic
flux through a unit cross sectional area of a
body and the flux through a like unit cross
sectional area of the air.
=(/A)/H= B/H --------- for space (air) is
4*10
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and is indexed as 1.

Magnetic Susceptibility
This is an ability of a magnetic material
to be magnetized. The intensity of
magnetization I depends also on
magnetizing field H.
The intensity of magnetization, I, is
related to the strength of the inducing
magnetic field, H, through a constant
of proportionality, k, known as the
magnetic susceptibility.

Magnetic Lines of Force Associated
with Magnetic Dipoles
The force associated with this fundamental
element of magnetism, the magnetic
dipole, now looks more complicated than
the simple force associated with gravity.
Notice how the arrows describing the
magnetic force appear to come out of the
monopole labeled N and into the
monopole labeled S
Magnetic Lines of Force Associated with
Magnetic Dipoles
Mag Bar
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Earths magnetism: due to electric currents in liquid outer core
Magnetic field is measured (units): in Teslas [T, too large] nanoTesla (nT, 10
-9
T)
11.5
magnetic dipole
[the source producing the magnetic
field is far from where were are
measuring its field; within the core]

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Main Elements of the Dipole Field
= latitude (+90 to -90)
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Magnetic Field Nomenclature
At any point on the Earth's surface, the magnetic
field, F*, has some strength and points in some
direction. The following terms are used to describe
the direction of the magnetic field.
Declination - The angle between north and the
horizontal projection of F. This value is measured
positive through east and varies from 0 to 360
degrees.
Inclination - The angle between the surface of the
earth and F. Positive inclinations indicate F is pointed
downward, negative inclinations indicate F is pointed
upward. Inclination varies from -90 to 90 degrees
Total mag intensity
F
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Magnetic Inclination
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Magnetic declination
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10th Generation IGRF Results
Field Model Results

Location Latitude Longitude Altitude Date
Karachi 25 degs N 67 degs E 0.00 km 2008
Component Field Value Secular Variation
Declination 0.528 degrees 2.6 arcmin/year
Inclination 38.376 degrees 6.3 arcmin/year
Horizontal Intensity 35170 nT 2.2 nT/year
North Component 35169 nT 2.0 nT/year
East Component 324 nT 26.1 nT/year
Vertical Intensity 27852 nT 107.4 nT/year
Total Intensity 44863 nT 68.4 nT/year
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paths of magnetic field
[iron filings on a sheet over a magnet]
bar magnet
coil
Earths Magnetic Field
where rotation axis
intersects the surface
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Earths magnetism: due to electric currents in liquid outer core
Magnetic field is measured (units): in Teslas [T, too large] nanoTesla (nT, 10
-9
T)
11.5
magnetic dipole
[the source producing the magnetic
field is far from where were are
measuring its field; within the core]
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paths of magnetic field
[iron filings on a sheet over a magnet]
bar magnet
coil
Earths Magnetic Field
where rotation axis
intersects the surface
Earths magnetic field
Magnetic Equator - The location around the
surface of the Earth where the Earth's
magnetic field has an inclination of zero (the
magnetic field vector F is horizontal). This
location does not correspond to the Earth's
rotational equator
Magnetic Poles - The locations on the surface
of the Earth where the Earth's magnetic field
has an inclination of either plus or minus 90
degrees (the magnetic field vector F is
vertical). These locations do not correspond
to the Earth's north and south poles
The Earth's Magnetic Field
90% of the Earth's magnetic field looks like a
magnetic field that would be generated from a
dipolar magnetic source located at the center
of the Earth and aligned with the Earth's
rotational axis.
The strength of the magnetic field at the poles
is about 60,000 nT, at Equator is 30,000 nT.
If this dipolar description of the field were
complete, then the magnetic equator would
correspond to the Earth's equator and the
magnetic poles would correspond to the
geographic poles.
Earths magnetic field
The remaining 10% of the magnetic field cannot
be explained in terms of simple dipolar sources.
Complex models of the Earth's magnetic field
have been developed and are available.
If the Earth's field were simply dipolar with the
axis of the dipole oriented along the Earth's
rotational axis, all declinations would be 0
degrees (the field would always point toward the
north). As can be seen, the observed
declinations are quite complex
Earths Magnetic Field
As observed on the surface of the earth, the magnetic field can be
broken into three separate components.
Main Field - This is the largest component of the magnetic field and
is believed to be caused by electrical currents in the Earth's fluid
outer core. For exploration work, this field acts as the inducing
magnetic field.
External Magnetic Field - This is a relatively small portion of the
observed magnetic field that is generated from magnetic sources
external to the earth. This field is believed to be produced by
interactions of the Earth's ionosphere with the solar wind. Hence,
temporal variations associated with the external magnetic field are
correlated to solar activity.
Crustal Field - This is the portion of the magnetic field associated
with the magnetism of crustal rocks. This portion of the field contains
both magnetism caused by induction from the Earth's main magnetic
field and from remanant magnetization
Magnetics and Geology - A Simple
Example
The portion of the magnetic field that we have
described as the main magnetic field is believed to be
generated in the Earth's core.
In addition to these core sources of magnetism, rocks
exist near the Earth's surface that are below their
Curie temperature and as such can exhibit induced
as well as remanent magnetization
Therefore, if we were to measure the magnetic field
along the surface of the earth, we would record
magnetization due to both the main and induced
fields. The induced field is the one of interest to us
because it relates to the existence of rocks of high or
low magnetic susceptibility near our instrument
Magnetic Field Nomenclature
At any point on the Earth's surface, the
magnetic field, F*, has some strength and
points in some direction. The following terms
are used to describe the direction of the
magnetic field.
Declination - The angle between north and
the horizontal projection of F. This value is
measured positive through east and varies
from 0 to 360 degrees.
Inclination - The angle between the surface of
the earth and F. Positive inclinations indicate
F is pointed downward, negative inclinations
indicate F is pointed upward. Inclination
varies from -90 to 90 degrees
Total Field Measurements
Magnetic Anomaly: Magnetized
Sphere at the North Pole

Magnetic Anomaly: Magnetized Sphere
at the Equator

Magnetic Anomaly: Magnetized Sphere in
the Northern Hemisphere

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Magnetic surveying depends on the target producing a magnetic
anomaly by locally modifying the Earths magnetic field
the relationship of the anomaly to its source is more complex
than for gravity
for as well as depending on the sources shape and magnetic
properties, it also depends on its orientation, the latitude at which
the anomaly occurs and if it has a remanent magnetisation (as is
usual) upon its history
the measured total field derives from
adding together the field of the body and
the Earths field:
vector addition of strengths and directions
Buried: short, but powerful dipole
dipole field opposite in the direction to
Earths field, so measured total field
is less (than the Earths field) giving
a negative anomaly
dipole field similar in direction to Earths field, so measured total
field is greater (than the Earths field) giving a positive anomaly
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Magnetometers
1. Proton magnetometer [measures total strength of magnetic field but not
its direction and so shows a total field anomaly]
2. Fluxgate magnetometer [measures component of field along the axis
of sensor; in land survey sensor is aligned vertically vertical component anomaly]
resolution ~1 nT (or less)
kerosene (reach in hydrogen)
Fluxgate Magnetometer
The fluxgate magnetometer was originally
designed and developed during World War II.
It was built for use as a submarine detection
device for low-flying aircraft. Today it is used
for conducting magnetic surveys from aircraft
and for making borehole measurements. A
schematic of the fluxgate magnetometer is
shown below
The fluxgate magnetometer is based on what
is referred to as the magnetic saturation
circuit. Two parallel bars of a ferromagnetic
material are placed closely together. The
susceptibility of the two bars is large enough
so that even the Earth's relatively weak
magnetic field can produce magnetic
saturation in the bars

Proton Precession Magnetometer
For land-based magnetic surveys, the
most commonly used magnetometer is
the proton precession magnetometer.
Unlike the fluxgate magnetometer, the
proton precession magnetometer only
measures the total size of the Earth's
magnetic field. These types of
measurements are usually referred to
as total field measurements. A
schematic of the proton precession
magnetometer is shown below
Total Field Measurements

Shipborne - Magnetic surveys can also be completed
over water by towing a magnetometer behind a ship.
Obviously, marine magnetic surveying is slower than
airborne surveying. When other geophysical methods
are being conducted by ship, however, it may make
sense to acquire magnetic data simultaneously.
Ground Based - Like gravity surveys, magnetic
surveys are also commonly conducted on foot or with
a vehicle. Ground-based surveys may be necessary
when the target of interest requires more closely-
spaced readings than are possible to acquire from
the air. In the next discussion we will concentrate on
ground-based surveys. All of this discussion,
however, could be applied to air- and shipborne
surveys also
Modes of Acquiring Magnetic
Observations
Magnetic observations are routinely collected
using any one of three different field
operational strategies
Airborne - Both fluxgate and proton
precession magnetometers can be mounted
within or towed behind aircraft, including
helicopters. These so-called aeromagnetic
surveys are rapid and cost effective. When
relatively large areas are involved, the cost of
acquiring 1 km of data from an aeromagnetic
survey is about 40% less than the cost of
acquiring the same data on the ground
Magnetic Cleanliness and
Interference
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Magnetic Data Acquisition
base station
base station
base station
Ground magnetic surveys
operator carrying the sensor must be free of magnetic
objects (keys, knifes, etc)
measurements must be taken away from ferrous objects
(like fences, railway lines, electric wires etc)
return to base station or continuous measurements at base
station by a second magnetometer (correct for diurnal variations)
Magnetic character of the measured anomaly can be
used as a preliminary identification of lithology
Temporal Variations of the Earth's Magnetic
Field - Overview
Secular Variations - These are long-term (changes in
the field that occur over years) variations in the main
magnetic field that are presumably caused by fluid
motion in the Earth's Outer Core. Because these
variations occur slowly with respect to the time of
completion of a typical exploration magnetic survey,
these variations will not complicate data reduction
efforts
Diurnal Variations - These are variations in the
magnetic field that occur over the course of a day
and are related to variations in the Earth's external
magnetic field. This variation can be on the order of
20 to 30 nT per day and should be accounted for
when conducting exploration magnetic surveys
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Data Reduction: [fewer & less important corrections in
comparison to gravity surveying]
1. Diurnal variations
[strength of Earths magnetic field changes over the course
of a day, max. 100 nT over 24hrs;
magnetic storm if variation exceeds 1000 nT]
correcting for diurnal variation
Mjlnir crater
Mjlnir crater
Magnetic Storms - Occasionally, magnetic
activity in the ionosphere will abruptly increase.
The occurrence of such storms correlates with
enhanced sunspot activity. The magnetic field
observed during such times is highly irregular
and unpredictable, having amplitudes as large
as 1000 nT. Exploration magnetic surveys
should not be conducted during magnetic storms
Diurnal Variations of the Earth's Magnetic
Field

Magnetic Storms
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Data Reduction
2. Subtracting the Earths global field varies depending on latitude (from Equator to poles)
International Geomagnetic Reference Field (IGRF):
revised every 5 years to account for secular variation
Correcting for Main Field
Variations
Corrections for spatial variations in the
strength of the Earth's main magnetic
field are referred to as geomagnetic
corrections. One commonly used
method of accounting for these
variations is to use one of the many
models of the Earth's main magnetic
field that are available. One such set of
commonly used models of the main field
is referred to as the International
Geomagnetic Reference Field (IGRF).
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Magnetic anomalies of simple shaped bodies
magnets with isolated poles
1. The field of a dipole
2. Anomaly of a dipole, or small body
a magnetic body is thought of as
being made of +/- magnetic poles
measuring instrument is
considered as being a +pole
the field of each pole is found
separately and then added
dipole aligned with the Earths field,
i.e. only induced magnetisation
= 45 inclination
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4. Anomaly of a
vertical sheet
equator (0) latitude (27N) North pole (+90)
striking E-W
striking N-S
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3. Anomaly of a sphere
dividing a magnet
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Depth of a magnetic body
Peters half-slope method:
1. draw slope of steepest part of the anomaly (line 1)
2. draw a line (line 2) half as steep as line 1
3. fit line 2 (parallel lines with same slope) on either side
of the steepest part of the anomaly (points A & B)
4. measure horizontal separation (S) between points
A & B
5. depth to top of body: d 1.6 S
similar with gravity:
the shallower a body, the sharper & larger the anomaly
the deeper the body the broader the anomaly
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Mineral magnetism
Magnetic susceptibility (): the ability of a rock to become temporarily magnetised
while a magnetic field is applied to it
paramagnetic materials become magnetised only when the field is present
ferromagnetic materials increase their magnetisation while a field is applied
}
this temporary magnetisation is
called induced magnetisation
strength of the magnetic field
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Kningsberger ratio, Q: the ratio of remanence to induced magnetisation
Q = M
r
/ M
i
Q > 1 remanent magnetisation prevails

Susceptibilities of Rocks and
Minerals
Material Susceptibility x 10
3
(SI)*
Air ~0 Quartz -0.01
Rock Salt -0.01 Calcite -0.001 - 0.01
Sphalerite 0.4 Pyrite 0.05 - 5
Hematite 0.5 - 35 Illmenite 300 -
3500
Magnetite 1200 - 19,200
Limestones 0 - 3 Sandstones 0 - 20
Shales 0.01 - 15 Schist 0.3 - 3
Gneiss 0.1 - 25 Slate 0 - 35
Granite 0 - 50 Gabbro 1 - 90
Basalt 0.2 - 175 Peridotite 90 -
200
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Computer Modeling:

e.g. GM-SYS (Gravity-Magnetic modeling software) 2D, 2D, 2D, 3D
forward modeling
rock samples:
measure susceptibilities and remanent magnetisations
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Advanced Processing of Data
1. Reduction to the pole
equator (0) latitude (27N)
North pole (+90)
2. Pseudogravity
deduce a body by accounting for the produced
magnetic anomaly
calculate its gravity anomaly by setting a
plausible density
if the pseudogravity anomaly matches the observed
gravity anomaly then the shape of the body is
correct and the same body produces the magnetic
and gravity anomalies
if not, then there are different causative bodies, or
the magnetisations and densities are not uniform
3. Upward and Downward continuation
gravity:
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Magnetic gradiometry
Gradiometer: two sensors (a fixed distance apart),
usually one above the other; records the difference
of their readings nT/m

advantage: Earths field same at the two sensors and so
completely cancels

extensively used for archaelogical prospecting &
detection of near-surface bodies
dykes
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A case study: Dellen impact crater (Sweden)
19 km diameter, ~89 Ma (Late Cretaceous) age
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Rock type Density (kg/m
3
) Susceptibility (10
-5
SI) Q value
1 Target rock 2670 50 0
2 High density body 2900 6000 0
3 Lightly shocked target 2600 100 2
4 Strongly shocked target 2500 100 1
5 Impact rock layer 2400 1500 1
6 Melt body 1 2400 2000 5.5
7 Melt body 2 2400 1500 5
8 Melt body 3 2400 2000 15
9 Melt body 4 2400 1500 5.5
10 Melt body 5 2400 2000 15
gravity profile
magnetic profile
Cross-section along entire crater
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Detailed profiles:

magnetic response of small
impact-generated melt bodies
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Aeromagnetic surveys
bird
covers large and, otherwise, inaccessible areas
looses in resolution [due to the height of the plane]
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Aeromagnetic surveys
offshore
Lofoten-Vesterlen
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Remanent & Induced Magnetisations
remanent magnetisation: the ability to retain magnetisation in the
absence of a field or in the presence of a different magnetic field
alignment and hence magnetisation
disappears as soon as the field is removed
directions of the magnetisations of the
magnetic atoms spontaneous align
[iron materials & its compounds, e.g. magnetite]