By P. Chetan Phani (06010417) Deep Gandhi (06010419) Hemant Kumar Bhaskar (06010421)

By
P. Chetan Phani (06010417)

Deep Gandhi (06010419)
Hemant Kumar Bhaskar (06010421)
1 CE 612: Term Paper
1. Introduction
In general Nondestructive testing (NDT) is a wide group
of analysis techniques used in the industry to evaluate the
properties of a material, component or system without
causing damage.

In the context of concrete, the use of NDT is relatively
new. The slow development of NDT techniques for
concrete is because, unlike steel, concrete is a highly non
homogeneous composite material with varying
composition and different raw materials.
Introduction contd.
The placing, consolidation, and curing of concrete takes
place in the field using labor that is relatively unskilled.
The resulting product is, by its very nature and
construction method, highly variable and does not lend
itself to testing by traditional nondestructive methods as
easily as steel products.
Introduction contd.
Despite the above drawbacks, there has been progress in the
development of nondestructive methods for testing concrete,
and several methods have been standardized by the American
Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), the Canadian
Standards Association (CSA), the International Standards
Organization (ISO), the British Standards Institute (BSI), and
others.

Nondestructive methods cannot yield absolute values of these
properties. Methods have been developed to measure other
properties of concrete from which estimates of mechanical
properties or other characteristics related to performance can be
inferred.
2. Types of NDTs
NDTs can be classified into two classes.

The first class consists of those methods that are used to
estimate strength. The surface hardness, penetration
resistance, pullout, break-off, pull-off, and maturity
techniques belong to this category.

Some of these methods are not truly nondestructive
because they cause some surface damage, which is,
however, minor compared with that produced by drilling a
core.
Types of NDTs contd.
The second class includes those methods that measure
other characteristics of concrete such as moisture content,
density, thickness, resistivity, and permeability.

Also included in the second class are such methods as
stress wave propagation, ground probing radar, and
infrared thermography techniques, which are used to
locate voids and cracks in concrete. In addition, there are
methods to provide information on steel reinforcement
such as bar location, bar size, and whether the bars are
corroding.
2.1 Surface Hardness
Methods
The increase in the hardness of concrete with age and
strength has led to the development of test methods to
measure this property. These methods consist of the
indentation type and those based on the rebound principle.

The indentation methods consist principally of impacting
the surface of concrete by means of a given mass having a
given kinetic energy and measuring the width and or depth
of the resulting indentation.
2.1 Surface Hardness
Methods contd.,
The methods based on the rebound principle consist of
measuring the rebound of a spring driven hammer mass
after its impact with concrete:
- Indentation Methods
- Testing Pistol by Williams
- Spring Hammer by Frank
- Pendulum Hammer by Einbeck
FIGURE 2.1.1 Vertical elevation and plan of Einbeck pendulum
hammer. Source Handbook on Nondestructive Testing of
Concrete, Second Edition ASTM International
Rebound Method
Rebound Hammer by Schmidt

FIGURE 2.1.2 Schmidt rebound hammer. Source Handbook
on Nondestructive Testing of Concrete, Second Edition
ASTM International
FIGURE 2.1.3 A cutaway schematic view of the Schmidt rebound
hammer Source Handbook on Nondestructive Testing of Concrete,
Second Edition ASTM International

Limitations of these methods.
The Indentation methods do a small extent of damage to the surface.

The rebound hammer provides a quick, inexpensive means of
checking the uniformity of concrete, it has serious limitations and
these must be recognized. The results of the Schmidt rebound
hammer are affected by:

1. Smoothness of test surface
2. Size, shape, and rigidity of the specimens
3. Age of test specimens
4. Surface and internal moisture conditions of the concrete
5. Type of coarse aggregate
6. Type of cement
7. Type of mold
8. Carbonation of the concrete surface
2.2 Penetration Resistance
Methods

Penetration resistance methods are based on the
determination of the depth of penetration of probes (steel
rods or pins) into concrete. This provides a measure of the
hardness or penetration resistance of the material that can
be related to its strength.
Pin Penetration Test

simple pin penetration test for the determination of early-
stage strength of concrete for removal of concrete
formwork. The apparatus consists of a device that grips a
pin having a length of 30.5 mm, a diameter of 3.56 mm
and a tip machined at an angle of 22.5

Limitations:-

Penetration resistance methods are basically hardness
methods, and like other hardness methods, should not be
expected to yield absolute values of strength of concrete in
a structure.
FIGURE 2.2.3 Diagram of pin penetration testing apparatus.
Source Handbook on Nondestructive Testing of Concrete, Second
Edition ASTM International
2.3 Pullout Test
The pullout test measures the force required to pull an
embedded metal insert with an enlarged head from a
concrete specimen or a structure.

FIGURE 2.3.1 Schematic of the
pullout test.
Source Handbook on
Nondestructive Testing of
Concrete, Second Edition ASTM
International
2.4 The Break-Off Test
Method
For many years questions have been raised regarding concrete
quality assurance test methods based upon standard cube tests,
which measure the potential strength of a concrete batch.

In-place concrete strength is not the same as the cube concrete
strength because the in-place concrete is placed, compacted, and
cured in a different manner than the cube specimen concrete.

Determination of accurate in-place strength is critical in form
removal and prestress or post-tension force release operations.
Fast construction techniques and construction failures emphasize
the need for adopting methods for determining in-place concrete
strength

BO Test Equipment

The BO tester consists of a load cell, a manometer, and a
manual hydraulic pump capable of breaking a cylindrical
concrete specimen having the specified dimensions

The load cell has two measuring ranges: low range setting for
low strength concrete up to approximately 20 MPa (3000 psi)
and high range setting for higher strength concrete up to about
60 MPa (9000 psi).

A tubular plastic sleeve, with internal diameter of 55 mm (2.17
in.) and geometry shown in, is used for forming cylindrical
specimen in fresh concrete. A sleeve remover is used for
removing the plastic sleeve from the hardened concrete. A
diamond tipped drilling bit is used for drilling cores for the BO
test in hardened concrete.
FIGURE 2.4.1 Schematic of
concrete cylindrical
specimen obtained by
inserting a sleeve or drilling
a core, and location of
applied load.
Source Handbook on
Nondestructive Testing of
Concrete, Second Edition
ASTM International

Applications
The BO test can be used both for quality control and quality
assurance. The most practical use of the BO test method is for
determining the time for safe form removal.

The main advantage of the BO test is that it measures in-place
concrete (flexural) strength. The equipment is safe and simple;
and the test is fast to perform, requiring only one exposed
surface

Limitations
Two limitations for the BO test equipment are worth noting: (1)
the maximum aggregate size; and (2) the minimum member
thickness for which it can be used. The maximum aggregate
size is 19 mm (3/4 in.) and the minimum member thickness is
100 mm (4in.).

2.5 The Maturity Method
As is well known, the strength of a given concrete mixture, which
has been properly placed, consolidated, and cured, is a function of its
age and temperature history.

At early ages, temperature has a dramatic effect on strength
development. This temperature dependence presents problems in
trying to estimate the in-place strength based on strength
development data obtained under standard laboratory conditions.

It was proposed that the measured temperature history during the
curing period could be used to compute a single number that would
be indicative of the concrete strength. This factor was termed as
maturity, and the well-known maturity rule for estimating the
strength of concrete was proposed .

Basic Principle

The basic principle in applying the maturity method is
illustrated in Figure 2.5.1. Two phases are involved:
1. Laboratory testing
2. Field measurement of the in-place temperature history

The laboratory testing must be performed before attempting to
estimate in-place strength. Two types of laboratory tests may be
required. One is used to establish the temperature sensitivity of
the rate constant for the particular materials in the concrete.

The second type of testing establishes the strengthmaturity
relationship for the concrete
Maturity Instruments
The temperature history of the structure is the basic
information needed to evaluate the in-place maturity index
(expressed as the temperaturetime factor or equivalent
age). Therefore, a device is needed to record temperature
as a function of time.

FIGURE 2.5.1 Example of multichannel
maturity meter using thermocouple
wires to monitor in-place temperature.
(Courtesy of American Engineering
Testing, Inc.)
Gist of the method:

The maturity method was initially proposed as a means to estimate
strength development of concrete during accelerated curing, such as
steam or electric curing. The idea was subsequently extended to
ordinary curing conditions.

The early work was empirical in nature. Recent work has
attempted to establish a theoretical basis for the method and to
explain the inherent approximations and limitations of the method.

In summary, the maturity method provides a simple procedure to
account for the effects of temperature and time on strength
development. In combination with other in-place strength tests
discussed , the maturity method is playing an expanded role in
advanced concrete technology.

2.6 Pull-Off Test
The pull-off test is based on the concept that the tensile
force required to pull a metal disk, together with a layer of
concrete, from the surface to which it is attached, is
related to the compressive strength of the concrete.

One basic approach is where the metal disk is attached
directly to the concrete surface and the stressed volume of
concrete lies close to the face of the disk
Fig. 2.6.1: Schematic of the pull-off test Fig. 2.6.2: Example of compressive
strength correlation for the pull-off test.
The main advantage of the pull-off test is that it is simple and quick to perform. The
entire process of preparing the surface and bonding the metal disk should take no
more than 15 min.
2.7 The Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Method:

The test instrument consists of a means of producing and introducing a
wave pulse into the concrete (pulse generator and transmitter) and a means
of sensing the arrival of the pulse (receiver) and accurately measuring the
time taken by the pulse to travel through the concrete.
Uses of this method are listed as follows:
Estimation of strength of concrete
Establishing the homogeneity of concrete
Studies on hydration of cement
Studies on Durability of Concrete
Measurement of Crack Depth

The test procedure is simple and the available equipment
in the market is easy to use in the laboratory as well as in
the field.
2.8 Methods to Evaluate Corrosion of
Reinforcement

The corrosion of ordinary steel is inevitable. Fortunately,
steel in concrete develops a protective oxide film that
provides a barrier to the transformation of the iron to rust.
The presence of chloride ions breaks down the passive
coating.

Basic information about two commonly used methods is
provided below:
1. Half-cell potential
2. Concrete resistivity

Half Cell Potential Method
The apparatus includes a coppercopper sulfate half-cell,
connecting wires, and a high-impedance voltmeter. This
half cell is composed of a copper bar immersed in a
saturated copper sulfate solution.
The positive terminal of the voltmeter is attached to the
reinforcement and the negative terminal is attached to the
coppercopper sulfate half cell.

The half-cell potential provides an assessment of
the likelihood that there is active corrosion in the
structure. It does not, by itself, provide information
on the corrosion rate.

Concrete Resistivity
The half-cell potential method provides an indication of
the likelihood of corrosion activity at the time of
measurement. It does not, however, furnish direct
information on the rate of corrosion of the reinforcement.

After a bar loses its passivity, the corrosion rate depends
on the availability of oxygen for the cathodic reaction.

Thus, a useful test in conjunction with a half-cell potential
survey is the measurement of the resistivity of the
concrete.


A high resistivity indicates that, even though the steel is
actively corroding as determined from the potential
survey, the corrosion rate may be low.

2.9 Rebar Locator
Rebar Locator features a universal probe that allows you
to measure both shallow and deep ranges at the push of a
button. This gauge will locate, size and show bar
orientation, as well as indicate concrete cover.
Summary
Some of the test methods described here are based on
fairly simple principles and are easy to carry out.

Regardless of which test is used, it is strongly
recommended that interpretation of test results be
performed by persons who are thoroughly familiar with
the principles and limitations of the method. Interpretation
should not be delegated to unqualified field technicians.

References
V.M Malhotra and M.J Carino, Handbook on Non Destructive
Testing of Concrete, Second Edition, ASTM (2004)

Jones, R., A review of the non-destructive testing of concrete, Proc.
Symp. Non-destructive Testing of Concrete and Timber, Institution
of Civil Engineers, London, June 1969.

Clifton, J.R., Non-Destructive Tests to Determine Concrete
StrengthA Status Report, NBSIR 75-729, National Bureau of
Standards, Washington, D.C.

Cold weather concreting, ACI 306R-88 (Reapproved 1997), Report
by Committee 306, Manual of Concrete Practice, American Concrete
Institute, Farmington Hills, MI.

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By P. Chetan Phani (06010417) Deep Gandhi (06010419) Hemant Kumar Bhaskar (06010421)

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