Limits and Their Properties

Contrasting Algebra & Calculus

Use f(x) to find the height of the
curve at x = c

Find the limit of f(x) as x
approaches c

Find the average rate of
change between t = a and t = b

Find the instantaneous rate
of change at t = c
A Preview of Calculus (contd)
Calculus is a branch of mathematics that deals with
rates of change like velocity and acceleration. What
we know of Calculus today, began in the 17
th
century
with Newton and Leibnitz


Calculus deals primarily with limits, derivatives and
integrals


Two problems are basic to the study of calculus: The
tangent line problem and the area problem
The Tangent Line Problem

The graph of a linear equation has a constant slope, but
the graph of a quadratic equation does not.

So, to find the slope of the curve at a certain point, we
find the slope of the tangent line at that point
TANGENT LINE
How will we determine the slope of the tangent line?
Tangent Line Problem
Approximate slope of tangent to a line
Start with slope of secant line
We begin by drawing a secant line, then bring the point of
intersection closer and closer to the point of tangency.

This helps us to get a good approximation of the slope of
the tangent line
The Tangent Line Problem
So, as x gets smaller the slope gets smaller and best
approximates the slope of the tangent line.


There is a limit to how small the slope can be.

( ) ( )
0
lim
x
f c x f c
x
A
+ A
A
The Area Problem
In other words!!!! As we increase the number of
rectangles, we get closer and closer to the actual
area of under the curve!!


Or we could say as the limit of the number of
rectangles approaches infinity!!!! we get closer
and closer to the actual area under the curve!!!!
Ways to Evaluate Limits:
Graphically show graph and arrows traveling from
each side of the x-value to find limit.

Numerically show table values from both
the right and left of the x-value to discover
limit.

Analytically - algebraically
Finding Limits Graphically

The informal definition of a limit is what is happening to y
as x gets close to a certain number

Notation for a Limit
This is read: The limit of f of x as x approaches c equals L.
If we are concerned with the limit of f(x) as we
approach some value c from the left hand side,
we write

( )
lim
x c
f x

One-sided LimitsLeft-Hand Limit

This is read-The limit of f as x approaches c from the left.
One-sided LimitsRight-Hand Limit
This is read: The limit of f as x approaches c from the right.
Definition of a Limit
If the right-hand and left-hand limits are equal and
exist, then the limit exists.
In order for a limit to exist at c
=

and we write:

( )
lim
x c
f x

( )
lim
x c
f x
+

( )
lim
x c
f x L

=
Example 2--Graphically
Look at the graph and notice that y
approaches 2 as x approaches 1
from the left. This is also true from
the right.

Therefore the limit exists
and is 2.
Graphically!
What causes this discontinuity???
ALGEBRA!
Simplify:
x x
x x
x
2
12 4
lim
2
2
2

+

When we are computing limits the question

that we are really asking is what y value is
our graph intending to take as we move on
towards x = 2 on our graph.

We are NOT asking what y value the graph
takes at the point in question!
Example 2--Numerically
Look at the table and notice
that y approaches 2 as x
approaches1 from the
left.(slightly smaller than 1)

This is also true from the right.
(slightly larger than 1)

Therefore the limit
Exists and is 2.
Finding Limits
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION
Determine whether the limit exists. If
it does, compute it.
( ) 7 lim
3
4

x
x
Let us make a table of values of x approaching 4 and the corresponding values of x
3
7
as we approach for both from above (from the right) and below (from the left)
x x
3
- 7 x x
3
- 7
4.1 61.921 3.9 52.319
4.01 57.481 3.99 56.521
4.001 57.048 3.999 56.952
4.0001 57.005 3.9999 56.995
As x approaches 4, it appears that x
3
7 approaches 57. In terms of our
notation,
( ) . 57 7 lim
3
4
=

x
x
Example. Evaluate the following limit:
The limit is NOT 5!!! Remember from the discussion after the first
example that limits do not care what the function is actually doing at
the point in question. Limits are only concerned with what is going on
around the point.
Since the only thing about the function that
we actually changed was its behavior at x
=2 this will not change the limit.
4 ) ( lim
2
=

x g
x
Finding Limits
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION
For the following function g (x), determine whether or not exists.
If so, give the limit.
( ) x g
x 3
lim

We can see that as x gets closer and closer to 3, the values of g(x)
get closer and closer to 2. This is true for values of x to both the right and the
left of 3.
( ) . 2 lim
3
=

x g
x
Limit of the Function
Note: we can approach a limit from
left right both sides
Function may or may not exist at that point
At a
right hand limit, no left
function not defined
At b
left handed limit, no right
function defined
a
b
Observing a Limit
Can be observed on a graph.
Observing a Limit
Can be observed on a graph.
Find each limit, if it exists.
2
1. lim ( )
x
f x

=
( )
1
2. lim 2 1
x
x

+ =
1 for 2
( )
1 for 2
x
f x
x
>

=

s

4
2
-2
-4
-5 5
DNE
1
D.S.
In order for a limit to exist, the two sides of
a graph must match at the given x-value.
Thus for Example 1:







does not exist

lim
x3
H(x) = 4
lim
x1
H(x)
1.1 Limits: A Numerical and Graphical Approach
Non Existent Limits
f(x) grows without bound
Non Existent Limits
What happens as x
approaches zero?
The limit as x approaches zero does not exist.
0
1
lim
x
does not e t
x
xis

=
Graphical Example 2
From this graph we can see that
as we move in towards t=0 the
function starts oscillating wildly
and in fact the oscillations
increases in speed the closer to
t=0 that we get. Recall from
our definition of the limit that in
order for a limit to exist the
function must be settling down
in towards a single value as we
get closer to the point in
question.
This function clearly does
not settle in towards a
single number and so this
limit does not exist!
Common Types of Behavior
Associated with Nonexistence of a
Limit
Properties of Limits
The Fundamentals
b b
c x
=

lim c x
c x
=

lim
n n
c x
c x =

lim
Basic Limits:

Let b and c be real numbers and let n be a
positive integer:

Examples:
=

3 lim
2 x
=

x
x 4
lim
=

2
3
lim x
x
3
-4
9
Properties of Limits
Algebraic Properties
L x f
c x
=

) ( lim K x g
c x
=

) ( lim
Let:

and
| | bL x bf
c x
=

) ( lim
| | K L x g x f
c x
=

) ( ) ( lim
| | LK x g x f
c x
=

) ( ) ( lim
Scalar Multiple:
Sum or Difference:
Product:

Let b and c be real numbers, let n be a positive integer, and
let f and g be functions with the following properties:
Quotient:
Power:


0 ;
) (
) (
lim = =
(

K
K
L
x g
x f
c x


| |
n
n
c x
L x f =

) ( lim

44
Evaluate by using the properties of limits. Show each step
and which property was used.
( ) = +

3 4 lim
2
2
x
x
Examples of Direct Substitution - EASY
3
5
9
2
2
2
2
lim
lim3
lim4 3
1
lim
1
x
x
x
x
x
x
x x
x

=
=
+
+

=
=
3
3
2
2
1 1
(5)
5 125
3
4(2) 3 19
2 2 1
5
2 1

= =
+ =
+
=

Examples
2
7
limcos
limsec
6
x
x
x
x
t
t

=
=
( )
2 2
limcos ( 1) 1
x t
t

= =
3
3 2
3
2
2
3
1
6
7
cos
1
6
7
sec lim
7

= =

t
t
x
Properties of Limits
n
th
roots
Let n be a positive integer. The following limit is valid for all c if
n is odd, and is valid for all c > 0 if n is even
n n
c x
c x =

lim
=

3 2
3
10 2 lim x
x
Properties of Limits
Composite Functions
If f and g are functions such that
L x g
c x
=

) ( lim
) ( ) ( lim L f x f
L x
=

and
then
( ) | | ) ( ) ( lim ) ( lim L f x g f x g f
c x c x
= =

Properties of Limits
Six Basic Trig Function
Let c be a real number in the domain of the
given trig function.
c x
c x
sin sin lim =

c x
c x
cos cos lim =

c x
c x
tan tan lim =

c x
c x
sec sec lim =

c x
c x
csc csc lim =

c x
c x
cot cot lim =

A Strategy For Finding Limits

Learn to recognize which limits can be evaluated by
direct substitution.

If the limit of f(x) as x approaches c cannot be
evaluated by direct substitution, try to find a function
g that agrees with f for all x other than x = c.

Use a graph or table to find, check or reinforce your
answer.
51
The Squeeze Theorem
and
) ( ) ( x g x f <
| | b a,
b c a s s
) ( lim ) ( lim x g x f
c x c x
s
FACT:
If
for all x on
then,

Example:
|
.
|

\
|

x
x
x
1
cos lim
2
0
1 cos 1 s s x
1
1
cos 1 s s
x
2 2 2
1
cos x
x
x x s s
0 lim
2
0
=

x
x
0 lim
2
0
=

x
x
0
1
cos lim
2
0
=
|
.
|

\
|

x
x
x
Trig Limits
0
sin
lim 1
x
x
x

=
(A star will indicate the need to memorize!!!)
0
1 cos
lim 0
x
x
x

=
Example- Using Trig Limits
0
sin5
lim
x
x
x

=
Example:
0
sin5
lim
5
5
x
x
x

=
0
sin5
li 5 m
5
x
x
x

5 1
5
=
=
equals 1
2
sin
lim
x
x
x
t

=
Example:
2
2
sin
t
t
=
2
1 2
t
t
=
Example
0
sin3
lim
2
x
x
x

=
Example:
0
3
2
3
2
sin3
lim
2
x
x
x

0
3 sin3
lim
2 3
x
x
x

=
equals 1
2
3
2
3
1 = =
Example
0
1 cos
lim
x
x
x

=
Example:
0
1 cos 1 cos
lim
1 cos
x
x x
x x

+
2
0
1 cos
lim
(1 cos )
x
x
x x

=
+
2
0
sin
lim
(1 cos )
x
x
x x

=
+
Use the
Pythagorean
Trig Identity
0
sin sin
lim
(1 cos )
x
x x
x x

=
+
Be creative
Special Trig Limit
sin0 0
1 1
1 cos0 2
0 = = =
+
General Strategies
Example- Factoring
2
2
2
lim
4
x
x
x

Example:
( )( )
2
2
lim
2 2
x
x
x x

+
Factor
2
2
lim
x
x

=
( ) ( )
2 2 x x +
1
( )
2
1
lim
2
x
x

=
+
1
4
=
Example- Factoring
2
2
4
5 4
lim
2 8
x
x x
x x

+
=

Example:
4
( 4)
lim
x
x

( 1)
( 4)
x
x

( 2) x +
4
( 1)
lim
( 2)
x
x
x

=
+
1 3
6 2
= =
Example
3
1
1
lim
1
x
x
x

+
=

Example:
Direct substitution results in 0 in
the denominator. Try factoring.
( )
( )
2
1
1 1
lim
1
x
x x x
x

+ +

Sum of cubes
Not factorable
None of the factors can be divided out,
so direct substitution still wont work.
The limit DNE. Verify the
result on your calculator.
The limits from the right and left do not equal each
other, thus the limit DNE.
Observe how the right limit goes to off to positive infinity and the left limit goes to negative infinity.
Example- Rationalizing Technique
Example:
0
1 1
lim
x
x
x

+
=
( ) ( )
( )
0
1 1 1 1
lim
1 1
x
x x
x
x

+ + +

+ +
( )
( )
0
1 1
lim
1 1
x
x
x x

+
=
+ +
0
lim
x
x

=
x
( )
1 1 x + +
0
1
2
1
lim
1 1
x
x

= =
+ +
62
Three Special Limits



Try it out!

0
sin 4
lim ?
9
x
x
x

=
2
0
1 cos
lim
x
x
x

( )
1
0 0 0
sin 1 cos
lim 1 lim 0 lim 1
x
x x x
x x
x e
x x

= = + =
x
x
x
7 sin
9 sin
lim
0
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
7
7
9
9
7 sin
9 sin
lim
0
=

x
x
x
x
x
x
x
7
7 sin
7
9
9 sin
9
lim
0

=

x
x
x
x
x
x
7
7 sin
lim
9
9 sin
lim
7
9
0
0

=
7
9
1
1
7
9
= =
64
Some Examples
Consider

Why is this difficult?

Strategy: simplify the algebraic fraction
2
2
6
lim
2
x
x x
x

( )( )
2
2 2
2 3
6
lim lim
2 2
x x
x x
x x
x x

+
+
=

65
Find each limit, if it exists.
3
1
1
1. lim
1
x
x
x

| |

\ .
( )
( )
2
1
1 1
lim
1
x
x x x
x

| |
+ +
|
=
|

\ .
( )
2
1
lim 1
x
x x

= + +
3 =
Direct Substitution doesnt work!
Factor, cancel, and try again!
D.S.
Dont forget, limits can
never be undefined!
Find each limit, if it exists.
0
1 1
2. lim
x
x
x

| |
+
|
|
\ .
( )
1 1 x + +
( )
1 1 x + +
Direct Substitution doesnt work.
Rationalize the numerator.
( )
0
1 1
lim
1 1
x
x
x x

| |
+
|
=
|
+ +
\ .
( )
0
lim
1 1
x
x
x x

| |
|
=
|
+ +
\ .
0
1
lim
1 1
x
x

| |
=
|
+ +
\ .
1
2
=
D.S.
Special Trig Limits
0
tan4
3. lim
x
x
x

| |
|
\ .
0
sin
lim
x
Ax
Ax

| |
=
|
\ .
0
1 cos
lim
x
Ax
Ax

| |
=
|
\ .
1
0
0
cos 1
lim
x
Ax
Ax

| |
=
|
\ .
0
0
sin4 1
lim
cos4
x
x
x x

| |
=
|
\ .
0
sin4 1
lim
cos4
x
x
x x

| |
=
|
\ .
0
sin4 4
lim
4 cos4
x
x
x x

| |
=
|
\ .
4
4
0 0
sin4 4
lim lim
4 cos4
x x
x
x x

| | | |
=
| |
\ . \ .
1 4 =
4 =
Trig
limit
D.S.
Evaluate by using a graph.
Is there a better way?
=
+

x
x
x
1 1
lim
0
0
0 0 0
1 1 1 1
lim
1 1
1 1 1
lim lim lim
( 1 1) ( 1 1) ( 1 1)
1

2
x
x x x
x x
x
x
x x
x x x x x

| |
+ + +
|
|
+ +
\ .
+
= = =
+ + + + + +
=
Evaluate:
=

x
x
x
3
1
3
1
lim
0
0 0 0
0
3 3
1 1
3(3 )
3 3
lim lim lim
3 (3 )
1 1
lim
3(3 ) 9
x x x
x
x
x x
x
x x x x
x

+
+
= =
+

= =
+
Evaluate:
( )
h
h
h
18 3 2
lim
2
0
+

( )
2
2
0 0
2 2
0 0 0
0
2 3 18
2(9 6 ) 18
lim lim
18 12 2 18 12 2 2 (6 )
lim lim lim
lim2(6 ) 12
h h
h h h
h
h
h h
h h
h h h h h h
h h h
h

+
+
=
+ + +
= = =
= + =
Note possibilities for piecewise defined
functions. Does the limit exist?
2
2
3 2 2
( )
5 2
lim ( ) ?
x
x if x
f x
x if x
f x

=

>